x^e.  Gis 


THE     PSYCHOLOGY 

OF 

MANAGEMENT 


THE    PSYCHOLOGY 

OF 

MANAGEMENT 

The  Function  of  the  Mind  in  Determining, 

Teaching  and  Installing  Methods 

of  Least  Waste 

BY 

L.  M.  GILBRETH,  M.  L. 


T>5  8 


•Mew  ISorft 
STURGIS  &  WALTON 
COMPANY 

1918 


^ 


^^ 


COPTBIGHT,  1914, 

STURGIS  &  WALTON  COMPANY 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  March,  1914 
Beprinted  December,  1917 


TO  MY 
FATHER  AND  MOTHER 


d 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I  PAGE 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  OF  THE  PSYCHOLOGY 

OF    MANAGEMENT I 

Definition  of  Psychology  of  Management  —  Im- 
portance of  the  Subject  — Purpose  of  this  Book 
—  Definition  of  Management  —  The  Three  Types 
of  Management  —  Possible  Psychological  Studies 
of  Management  —  Plan  of  Psychological  Study 
Here  Used  —  Underlying  Ideas  or  Divisions  of 
Scientific  Management  —  Outline  of  Method  of  In- 
vestigation—  Conclusions  to  be  Reached. 

CHAPTER  II 

INDIVIDUALITY 21 

Definition  of  Individuality  —  Place  of  Individu- 
ality in  Psychology  —  Individuality  Under  Tradi- 
tional Management  —  Individuality  Under  Transi- 
tory Management  — ■  Individuality  Under  Scientific 
Management  —  Selection  of  Workers  —  Separat- 
ing Output  —  Recording  Output  Separately  —  In- 
dividual Tasks  —  Individual  Instruction  Cards  — 
Individual  Teaching  —  Individual  Incentives  — 
Individual  Welfare  —  Summary :  (a)  Effect  of 
Individuality  upon  Work;  (b)  Effect  of  Individ- 
uality upon  Worker. 

J  CHAPTER  III 

V/ FUNCTION  ALIZATION 52 

Definition  of  Functionalization  —  Psychologic- 
al Use  of  Functionalization  —  Functionalization 
in  Traditional  Management  —  Functionalization 
Under  Transitory  Management  —  Functionaliza- 
tion  Under   Scientific    Management  —  Separating 


4 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

the  Planning  From  the  Performing  —  Functional- 
ized  Foremanship  —  The  Function  of  Order  of 
Work  and  Route  Clerk  —  The  Function  of  In- 
struction Card  Clerk  — '  The  Function  of  Time  and 
Cost  Clerk  —  The  Function  of  Disciplinarian  — 
The  Function  of  Gang  Boss  — The  Function  of 
Speed  Boss  —  The  Function  of  Repair  Boss  — 
The  Function  of  Inspector  —  Functionalizing  the 
Worker  —  Functionalizing  the  Work  Itself  — 
Summary:  (a)  Effect  of  Functionalization  upon 
the  Work;  (b)  Effect  of  Functionalization  upon 
the  Worker. 

CHAPTER  IV 

MEASUREMENT 9^ 

Definition  of  Measurement  —  Importance  of 
Measurement  in  Psychology  —  Relation  of  Meas- 
urement in  Psychology  to  Measurement  in  Man- 
agement —  Importance  of  Measurement  in  Man- 
agement —  Measurement  in  Traditional  Manage- 
ment —  Measurement  in  Transitory  Management 

—  Measurement  in  Scientific  Management  — 
Qualifications  of  the  Observer  —  Methods  of 
Observation — 'Definitions  of  Motion  Study  and 
Time  Study  —  Methods  of  Motion  Study  and 
Time  Study — Summary:  (a)  Effect  of  Meas- 
urement on  the  Work ;  (b)  Effect  of  Measurement 
on  the  Worker;  (c)  Future  Results  to  be  Ex- 
pected; (d)  First  Step  Toward  Obtaining  These 
Results. 

CHAPTER  V 

ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 123 

Definition  of  Analysis  —  Definition  of  Synthesis 

—  Use  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis  by  Psychology 

—  Importance  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis  in  Man- 
agement —  Place  in  Traditional  Management  — 
Place  in  Transitory  Management  —  Place  in 
Scientific  Management  —  The  Work  of  the  Analyst 

—  Determining  Factor  in  Amount  of  Analysis  — 
Field  of  Pyschology  in  Analysis  —  Qualifications 
of  an  Analyst  —  Worker's  Interest  in  Analysis  — 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 
The  Work  of  the  Synthesist  —  Results  of  Syn- 
thesist's  Work  —  The  Task  —  Discussion  of  the 
Name  "  Task  " —  Definition  of  "  Task  "  in  Scien- 
tific Management  —  Field  of  Application  of  the 
Task  Idea  —  Qualifications  of  the  Synthesist  — 
Summary:  (a)  Effect  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis 
on  the  Work;  (b)  Efifect  of  Analysis  and  Syn- 
thesis on  the  Worker. 

CHAPTER  VI 

STANDARDIZATION 139 

Definition  of  Standardization  —  Relation  of  the 
Standard  to  the  Task  and  the  Incentive  —  Rela- 
tion of  the  Standard  to  Psychology  —  Purpose  of 
Standardization  —  Standardization  Under  Tradi- 
tional Management  —  Standarization  Under  Tran- 
sitory Management  —  Value  of  Systems  — 
Standardization     Under     Scientific     Management 

—  Relation  of  Standard  to  Measurement  —  Scope 
of  Standardization  Under  Scientific  Management 

—  Permanence  of  Results  —  Needs  of  Standard- 
ization Likened  to  Needs  in  Field  of  Spelling — < 
Standard  Nomenclature  —  Advantages  of  Mne- 
monic S)nTibols  —  Standard  Phraseology  —  The 
Standard  Man  —  Standard  Means  of  Conveying 
Information  —  Definition  of  the  Instruction  Card 

—  Detailed  Description  of  the  Instruction  Card  — 
Value  of  Standard  Surroundings  —  Necessity  for 
Proper  Placing  of  the  Worker — Standard  Equip- 
ment —  Standard  Tools  and  Devices  —  Standard 
Clothing  —  Standard  Methods  —  Rest  from  Fa- 
tigue —  Standardization  of  Work  with  Animals  — 
Standard  Quality  —  Standard  ''Method  of  At- 
tack"— 'Summary:  (a)  Effect  of  Standardiza- 
tion on  the  Work;  (b)  Effect  of  Standardization 
on  the  Worker;  (c)  Progress  of  Standardization 
Assured. 

CHAPTER  VII 

RECORDS    AND    PROGRAMMES 183 

Definition  of  Record  —  Records  Under  Tradi- 
tional  Management  —  Records  Under  Transitory 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Management  —  Records  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment—  Criterion  of  Records  —  Records  of  Work 
and  Workers  —  Records  of  Initiative  —  Records 
of  Good  Behavior  —  Records  of  Achievement  — 
Records  of   "  Exceptions  " —  Posting  of   Records 

—  Summary  of  Results  of  Records  to  Work  and 
Worker  —  Definition  of  Programme  —  Pro- 
grammes Under  Traditional  Management  —  Pro- 
grammes Under  Transitory  Management — 'Pro- 
grammes Under  Scientific  Management  — 
Programmes  and  Routing  —  Possibility  of  Pro- 
phecy Under  Scientific  Management  —  Summary 
of  Results  of  Programmes  to  Work  and  Worker 

—  Relation  Between  Records  and  Programmes  — 
Types  of  Records  and  Programmes  —  Interrela- 
tion of  Types  —  Illustrations  of  Complexity  of 
Relations  —  Possibilities  of  Eliminating  Waste  — 
Derivation  of  the  Programme — Summary:  (a) 
Effect  of  Relations  Between  Records  and  Pro- 
grammes on  the  Work;  (b)  Effect  on  the  Worker. 

CHAPTER  VIII 

TEACHING 208 

Definition  of  Teaching  —  Teaching  Under  Tra- 
ditional Management  —  Faults  Due  to  Lack  of 
Standards  —  Teaching  Under  Transitory  Manage- 
agement  —  Teaching  Under  Scientific  Management 

—  Importance  of  Teaching  —  Conforming  of 
Teaching  to  Psychological  Laws  —  Conservation 
of  Valuable  Elements  of  Traditional  and  Transi- 
tory Management  —  Scope  of  Teaching  —  Source 
of  Teaching  —  Methods  of  Teaching  —  Instruc- 
tion Cards  as  Teachers  —  Systems  as  Teachers  — 
Drawings,  Charts,  Plans  and  Photographs  — 
Functional  Foremen  as  Teachers  —  Object  Les- 
sons as  Teachers  —  Training  the  Senses  —  Form- 
ing Good  Habits  —  Importance  of  Teaching 
Right  Motions  First  —  Stimulating  Attention  — 
Forming    Associations  —  Educating   the    Memory 

—  Cultivating  the  Imagination  —  Developing  the 
Judgment  —  Utilizing  Suggestion  —  Utilizing  Na- 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

tive  Reactions  —  Developing  the  Will  —  Adapta- 
bility of  Teaching  —  Provision  of  Places  for 
Teaching  —  Measurement  of  Teaching  —  Rela- 
tion of  Teaching  to  Academic  Training  and  Voca- 
tional Guidance  —  Summary:  (a)  Result  of 
Teaching  in  the  Work;  (b)  Result  of  Teaching  to 
the  Worker;  (c)  Results  to  be  Expected  in  the 
Future. 

CHAPTER  IX 

[NCENTIVES 271 

Definition  of  Incentive  —  Importance  of  Incen- 
tives —  Direct  and  Indirect  Incentives  — >  Defini- 
tion of  Reward  —  Definition  of  Punishment  — ■ 
Nature  of  Direct  Incentives  —  The  Reward  Under 
Traditional  Mahagement  —  The  Punishment 
Under  Traditional  Management  —  The  Direct 
Incentive  Under  Traditional  Management  —  Incen- 
tives Under  Transitory  Management  —  Rewards 
Under  Scientific  Management  —  Promotion  and 
Pay — 'Relation  of  Wages  and  Bonus  —  Day 
Work  —  Piece  Work  —  Task  Wage  —  Gain  Shar- 
ing —  Premium  Plan  —  Profit  Sharing  —  Differ- 
ential Rate  Piece — 'Task  Work  with  a  Bonus  — 
Differential  Bonus  —  Three  Rate  —  Three  Rate 
with  Increased  Rate  — ■  Other  Rewards  —  Nega- 
tive and  Positive  Punishments  —  Fines  and  Their 
Disposal  —  Assignment  to  Less  Pleasant  Work  — 
Discharge  and  Its  Elimination  —  Use  of  Direct 
Incentives  —  Summary:  (a)  Effect  of  Incen- 
tives upon  the  Work;  (b)  Effect  of  Incentives 
upon  the  Worker. 

CHAPTER  X 

WELFARE  311 

Definition  of  Welfare  — "  Welfare  "  and  "  Wel- 
fare Work  " —  Welfare  Under  Traditional  Man- 
agement—  Welfare  Work  Under  Traditional 
Management  —  Welfare  Under  Transitory  Man- 
agement —  Welfare  Work  Under  Transitory  Man- 
agement—  Welfare  Under  Scientific  Management 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

—  Physical  Improvement  —  Mental  Development 
— '  Moral  Development  —  Interrelation  of  Physical, 
Mental  and  Moral  Development  —  Welfare  Work 
Under  Scientific  Management — Summary:  (a) 
Result  of  Welfare  to  the  Work;  (b)  Result  of 
Welfare  to  the  Worker. 
INDEX 333 


The  Psychology  of  Management 

CHAPTER  I 
DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  OF 

Definition  of  Psychology  of  Management.— The 

Psychology  of  Management,  as  here  used,  means, — 
the  effect  of  the  mind  that  is  directing  work  upon  that 
work  which  is  directed,  and  the  effect  of  this  undi- 
rected and  directed  work  upon  the  mind  of  the 
worker. 

Importance  of  the  Subject. —  Before  defining  the 
terms  that  will  be  used  more  in  detail,  and  outlining 
the  method  of  treatment  to  be  followed,  it  is  well  to 
consider  the  importance  of  the  subject  matter  of 
this  book,  for  upon  the  reader's  interest  in  the  subject, 
and  his  desire,  from  the  outset,  to  follow  what  is 
said,  and  to  respond  to  it,  rests  a  large  part  of  the 
value  of  this  book. 

Value  of  Psychology. — First  of  all,  then,  what  is 
there  in  the  subject  of  psychology  to  demand  the  at- 
tention of  the  manager? 

Psychology,  in  the  popular  phrase,  is  "  the  study  of 
the  mind."  It  has  for  years  been  included  in  the 
training  of  all  teachers,  and  has  been  one  of  the  first 
steps  for  the  student  of  philosophy;  but  it  has  not, 
usually,  been  included  among  the  studies  of  the  young 


8      THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

scientific  or  engineering  student,  or  of  any  students  in 
other  lines  than  Philosophy  and  Education.  This,  not 
because  its  value  as  a  "  culture  subject "  was  not  un- 
derstood, but  because  the  course  of  the  average 
student  is  so  crowded  with  technical  preparation  nec- 
essary to  his  life  work,  and  because  the  practical  value 
of  psychology  has  not  been  recognized.  It  is  well 
recognized  that  the  teacher  must  understand  the 
working  of  the  mind  in  order  best  to  impart  his  in- 
formation in  that  way  that  will  enable  the  student 
to  grasp  it  most  readily.  It  was  not  recognized  that 
every  man  going  out  into  the  world  needs  all  the 
knowledge  that  he  can  get  as  to  the  working  of  the 
human  mind  in  order  not  only  to  give  but  to  receive 
information  with  the  least  waste  and  expenditure  of 
energy,  nor  was  it  recognized  that  in  the  industrial,  as 
well  as  the""  academic  world,  almost  every  man  is  a 
teacher. 

Value  of  Management. —  The  second  question  de- 
manding attention  is ;  —  Of  what  value  is  the  study 
of  management  ? 

The  study  of  management  has  been  omitted  from 
the  student's  training  until  comparatively  recently, 
for  a  very  different  reason  than  was  psychology.  It 
was  never  doubted  that  a  knowledge  of  management 
would  be  of  great  value  to  anyone  and  everyone,  and 
many  were  the  queer  schemes  for  obtaining  that 
knowledge  after  graduation.  It  was  doubted  that 
management  could  be  studied  otherwise  than  by  ob- 
servation and  practice.^  Few  teachers,  if  any,  be- 
lieved in  the  existence,  or  possibility,  of  a  teaching 

*  Charles  Babbage,  Economy  of  Manufacturers.    Preface,  p.  y. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  3 

science  of  management.  Management  was  assumed 
by  many  to  be  an  art,  by  even  more  it  was  thought 
to  be  a  divinely  bestowed  gift  or  talent,  rather  than 
an  acquired  accomplishment.  It  was  common  be- 
lief that  one  could  learn  to  manage  only  by  going 
out  on  the  work  and  watching  other  managers,  or 
by  trying  to  manage,  and  not  by  studying  about  man- 
agement in  a  class  room  or  in  a  text  book ;  that  watch- 
ing a  good  manager  might  help  one,  but  no  one  could 
hope  really  to  succeed  who  had  not  "  the  knack  born 
in  him." 

With  the  advent  of  "  Scientific  Management,"  and 
its  demonstration  that  the  best  management  is 
founded  on  laws  that  have  been  determined,  and  can 
be  taught,  the  study  of  management  in  the  class 
room  as  well  as  on  the  work  became  possible  and 
actual.^ 

Value  of  Psychology  of  Management. —  Third,  we 
must  consider  the  value  of  the  study  of  the  psychology 
of  management.^ 

This  question,  like  the  one  that  precedes  it,  is 
answered  by  Scientific  Management.  It  has  dem- 
onstrated that  the  emphasis  in  successful  manage- 
ment lies  on  the  man,  not  on  the  work;  that  efificiency 
is  best  secured  by  placing  the  emphasis  on  the  man, 
and  modifying  the  equipment,  materials  and  methods 
to  make  the  most  of  the  man.  It  has,  further,  rec- 
ognized that  the  man's  mind  is  a  controlling  fac- 
tor in  his  efficiency,  and  has,  by  teaching,   enabled 

2  Halbert  P.  Gillette,  Paper  No.  i,  American  Society  of  Engineer- 
ing Contractors. 
*  Gillette  and  Dana,  Cost  Keeping  and  Management,  p.  5. 


4  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

the  man  to  make  the  most  of  his  powers.*  In  or- 
der to  understand  this  teaching  element  that  is  such 
a  large  part  of  management,  a  knowledge  of  psy- 
chology is  imperative;  and  this  study  of  psychology, 
as  it  applies  to  the  work  of  the  manager  or  the  man- 
aged, is  exactly  what  the  "  psychology  of  manage- 
ment "  is. 

Five  Indications  of  This  Value. —  In  order  to 
realize  the  importance  of  the  psychology'-  of  manage- 
ment it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  following  five 
points :  — 

1.  Management  is  a  life  study  of  every  man  who 
works  with  other  men.  He  must  either  manage,  or 
be  managed,  or  both ;  in  any  case,  he  can  never  work 
to  best  advantage  until  he  understands  both  the 
psychological  and  managerial  laws  by  which  he  gov- 
erns or  is  governed. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  the  underlying  laws  of  man- 
agement is  the  most  important  asset  that  one  can 
carry  with  him  into  his  life  work,  even  though  he 
will  never  manage  any  but  himself.  It  is  useful, 
practical,  commercially  valuable. 

3.  This  knowledge  is  to  be  had  now.  The  men 
who  have  it  are  ready  and  glad  to  impart  it  to  all 
who  are  interested  and  who  will  pass  it  on.°  The 
text  books  are  at  hand  now.  The  opportunities  for 
practical  experience  in  Scientific  Management  will 
meet  all  demands  as  fast  as  they  are  made. 

4.  The   psychology   of,   that   is,    the   mind's   place 

^F.  B.  Gilhreth,  Motion  Study,  p.  gS. 

6  F.  W.  Taylor,  Principles  of  Scientific  Management,  p.  144. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  5 

in  management  is  only  one  part,  element  or  variable 
of  management;  one  of  numerous,  almost  number- 
less, variables. 

5.  It  is  a  division  well  fitted  to  occupy  the  atten- 
tion of  the  beginner,  as  well  as  the  more  experienced, 
because  it  is  a  most  excellent  place  to  start  the  study 
of  management.  A  careful  study  of  the  relations  of 
psychology  to  management  should  develop  in  the 
student  a  method  of  attack  in  learning  his  selected 
life  work  that  should  help  him  to  grasp  quickly  the 
orderly  array  of  facts  that  the  other  variables,  as 
treated  by  the  great  managers,  bring  to  him. 

Purpose  of  This  Book. —  It  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
mention  that  this  book  can  hope  to  do  little  more 
than  arouse  an  interest  in  the  subject  and  point  the 
way  to  the  detailed  books  where  such  an  interest 
can  be  more  deeply  aroused  and  more  fully  satis- 
fied. 

What  This  Book  Will  Not  Do. —  It  is  not  the  pur- 
pose of  this  book  to  give  an  exhaustive  treatment, of 
psychology.  Neither  is  it  possible  in  this  book  to 
attempt  to  give  a  detailed  account  of  management  in 
general,  or  of  the  Taylor  plan  of  "  Scientific  Manage- 
ment "  so-called,  in  particular.  All  of  the  literature 
on  the  subject  has  been  carefully  studied  and  re- 
viewed for  the  purpose  of  writing  this  book, —  not 
only  what  is  in  print,  but  considerable  that  is  as  yet 
in  manuscript.  No  statement  has  been  made  that 
is  not  along  the  line  of  the  accepted  thought  and 
standardized  practice  of  the  authorities.  The  foot 
notes  have  been  prepared  with  great  care.     By  read- 


6  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ing  the  references  there  given  one  can  verify  state- 
ments in  the  text,  and  can  also,  if  he  desires,  inform 
himself  at  length  on  any  branch  of  the  subject  that 
especially  interests  him. 

What  This  Book  Will  Do. —  This  book  aims  not  so 
much  to  instruct  as  to  arouse  an  interest  in  its  sub- 
ject, and  to  point  the  way  whence  instruction  comes. 
If  it  can  serve  as  an  introduction  to  psychology  and 
to  management,  can  suggest  the  relation  of  these  two 
fields  of  inquiries  and  can  ultimately  enroll  its  readers 
as  investigators  in  a  resultant  great  field  of  inquiry, 
it  will  have   accomplished  its  aim. 

Definition  of  Management. —  To  discuss  this  sub- 
ject more  in  detail  — 

First :     What  is  "  Management  "  ? 

"  Management,"  as  defined  by  the  Century  Dic- 
tionary, is  "  the  art  of  managing  by  direction  or 
regulation." 

Successful  management  of  the  old  type  was  an  art 
based  on  no  measurement.  Scientific  Management 
is  an  art  based  upon  a  science, —  upon  laws  deducted 
from  measurement.  Management  continues  to  be 
what  it  has  always  been, —  the  art  of  directing  ac- 
tivity. 

Change  in  the  Accepted  Meaning. — "  Manage- 
ment," until  recent  years,  and  the  emphasis  placed 
on  Scientific  Management  was  undoubtedly  as- 
sociated, in  the  average  mind,  with  the  managing 
part  of  the  organization  only,  neglecting  that  vital 
part  —  the  best  interests  of  the  managed,  almost  en- 
tirely. Since  we  have  come  to  realize  that  manage- 
ment signifies  the  relationship  between  the  managing 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  7 

and  the  managed  in  doing  work,  a  new  realization  of 
its  importance  has  come  about.® 

Inadequacy  of  the  Terms  Used. —  It  is  unfortunate 
that  the  English  language  is  so  poor  in  synonyms  in 
this  field  that  the  same  word  must  have  two  such 
different  and  conflicting  meanings,  for,  though  the 
new  definition  of  management  be  accepted,  the 
"  Fringe  "  of  associations  that  belong  to  the  old  are 
apt  to  remainJ  The  thoughts  of  "  knack,  aptitude, 
tact,  adroitness," — ■  not  to  speak  of  the  less  desirable 
"  Brute  Force,"  "  shrewdness,  subtlety,  cunning,  arti- 
fice, deceit,  duplicity,"  of  the  older  idea  of  manage- 
ment remain  in  the  background  of  the  mind  and  make 
it  difficult,  even  when  one  is  convinced  that  manage- 
ment is  a  science,  to  think  and  act  as  if  it  were. 

It  must  be  noticed  and  constantly  remembered  that 
one  of  the  greatest  difficulties  to  overcome  in  study- 
ing management  and  its  development  is  the  meaning 
of  the  terms  used.  It  is  most  unfortunate  that  the 
new  ideas  have  been  forced  to  content  themselves 
with  old  forms  as  best  they  may. 

Psychological  Interest  of  the  Terms. —  Psychology 
could  ask  no  more  interesting  subject  than  a  study 
of  the  mental  processes  that  lie  back  of  many  of 
these  terms.  It  is  most  unfortunate  for  the  obtain- 
ing of  clearness,  that  new  terms  were  not  invented 
for  the  new  ideas.  There  is,  however,  an  excellent 
reason  for  using  the  old  terms.  By  their  use  it  is 
emphasized  that  the  new  thought  is  a  logical  out- 

*F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.   16,  Am.   Soc.  M.  E., 
Paper  No.  1003. 
^  William  James,  Psychology,  Vol.  I,  p.  258. 


8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

growth  of  the  old,  and  experience  has  proved  that 
this  close  relationship  to  established  ideas  is  a  pow- 
erful argument  for  the  new  science;  but  such  terms 
as  "  task,"  "  foreman,"  "  speed  boss,"  "  piece-rate  " 
and  "  bonus,"  as  used  in  the  science  of  management, 
suffer  from  misunderstanding  caused  by  old  and  now 
false  associations.  Furthermore,  in  order  to  com- 
pare old  and  new  interpretations  of  the  ideas  of  man- 
agement, the  older  terms  of  management  should  have 
their  traditional  meanings  only.  The  two  sets  of 
meanings  are  a  source  of  endless  confusion,  unwar- 
ranted prejudice,  and  worse.  This  is  well  recognized 
by  the  authorities  on  Management. 

The  Three  Types  of  Management. —  We  note  this 
inadequacy  of  terms  again  when  we  discuss  the  vari- 
ous types  of  Management. 

We  may  divide  all  management  into  three  types  — 
(i)  Traditional 

(2)  Transitory 

(3)  Scientific,  or  measured  functional.^ 
Traditional   Management,   the   first,   has   been   vari- 
ously called  "  Military,"  "  Driver,"  the  "  Marquis  of 
Queensberry  type,"  "  Initiative  and  Incentive  Man- 
agement," as  well  as  "  Traditional  "  management. 

Definition  of  the  First  Type. —  In  the  first  type, 
the  power  of  managing  lies,  theoretically  at  least,  in 
the  hands  of  one  man,  a  capable  "  all-around  "  man- 
ager. The  line  of  authority  and  of  responsibility  is 
clear,  fixed  and  single.  Each  man  comes  in  direct 
contact  with  but  one  man  above  him.  A  man  may 
or  may  not  manage  more  than  one  man  beneath  him, 

8  F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Cost  Reducing  System,  Chap.  I. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  9 

but,  however  this  may  be,  he  is  managed  by  but  one 
man  above  him. 

Preferable  Name  for  the  First  Type. —  The  names 
"Traditional,"  or  "  Initiative  and  Incentive,"  are  the 
preferable  titles  for  this  form  of  management.  It  is 
true  they  lack  in  specificness,  but  the  other  names, 
while  aiming  to  be  descriptive,  really  emphasize  one 
feature  only,  and  in  some  cases  with  unfortunate  re- 
sults. 

The  Name  "Military"  Inadvisable. —  The  direct 
line  of  authority  suggested  the  name  "  Military,"  ® 
and  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  that  name  it  was 
probably  appropriate  as  well  as  complimentary.^** 
Appropriate  in  the  respect  referred  to  only,  for  the 
old  type  of  management  varied  so  widely  in  its  mani- 
festations that  the  comparison  to  the  procedure  of 
the  Army  was  most  inaccurate.  "  Military  "  has  al- 
ways been  a  synonym  for  "  systematized,"  "  orderly," 
"  definite,"  while  the  old  type  of  management  was 
more  often  quite  the  opposite  of  the  meaning  of  all 
these  terms.  The  term  "  Military  Management " 
though  often  used  in  an  uncomplimentary  sense 
would,  today,  if  understood,  be  more  complimentary 
than  ever  it  was  in  the  past.  The  introduction  of 
various  features  of  Scientific  Management  into  the 
Army  and  Navy, —  and  such  features  are  being  in- 
corporated steadily  and  constantly, —  is  raising  the 
standard   of   management   there   to   a   high    degree. 

'  Morris  Llewellyn  Cooke,  Bulletin  No.  5  of  the  Carnegie  Foun- 
dation for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  p.  17. 

10  F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para,  234,  Am.  Soc.  M.  E., 
Paper  No.  1003. 


10  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

This  but  renders  the  name  "  Military  "  Management 
for  the  old  type  more  inaccurate  and  misleading. 

It  is  plain  that  the  stirring  associations  of  the 
word  "  military  "  make  its  use  for  the  old  type,  by  ad- 
vocates of  the  old  type,  a  weapon  against  Scientific 
Management  that  only  the  careful  thinker  can  turn 
aside. 

The  Names  "  Driver  "  and  "  Marquis  of  Queens- 
berry  "  Unfortunate. —  The  name  "  Driver  "  suggests 
an  opposition  between  the  managers  and  the  men, 
an  opposition  which  the  term  "  Marquis  of  Queens- 
berry  "  emphasizes.  This  term  "  Marquis  of  Queens- 
berry  "  has  been  given  to  that  management  which 
is  thought  of  as  a  mental  and  physical  contest,  waged 
"  according  to  the  rules  of  the  game."  These  two 
names  are  most  valuable  pictorially,  or  in  furnishing 
oratorical  material.  They  are  constant  reminders  of 
the  constant  desire  of  the  managers  to  get  all  the 
work  that  is  possible  out  of  the  men,  but  they  are 
scarcely  descriptive  in  any  satisfactory  sense,  and  the 
visions  they  summon,  while  they  are  perhaps  definite, 
are  certainly,  for  the  inexperienced  in  management, 
inaccurate.  In  other  words,  they  usually  lead  to 
imagination  rather  than  to  perception. 

The  Name  "  Initiative  and  Incentive  "  Authorita- 
tive.—  The  term  "  Initiative  and  Incentive,"  is  used 
by  Dr.  Taylor,  and  is  fully  described  by  him.^^  The 
words  themselves  suggest,  truly,  that  he  gives  the 
old  form  of  management  its  due.  He  does  more  than 
this.  He  points  out  in  his  definition  of  the  terms  the 
likenesses  between  the  old  and  new  forms. 
11  F,  W.  Taylor,  Principles  of  Scientific  Management,  pp.  33-38. 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  ii 

The  Name  "  Traditional  "  Brief  and  Descriptive. — 

The  only  excuses  for  the  term  "  Traditional,"  since 
Dr.  Taylor's  term  is  available,  are  its  brevity  and 
its  descriptiveness.  The  fact  that  it  is  indefinite  is 
really  no  fault  in  it,  as  the  subject  it  describes  is 
equally  indefinite.  The  "  fringe  "  ^^  of  this  word  is 
especially  good.  It  calls  up  ideas  of  information 
handed  down  from  generation  to  generation  orally, 
the  only  way  of  teaching  under  the  old  type  of  man- 
agement. It  recalls  the  idea  of  the  inaccurate  per- 
petuation of  unthinking  custom,  and  the  "  myth  "  ele- 
ment always  present  in  tradition, —  again  undeniable 
accusations  against  the  old  type  of  management. 
The  fundamental  idea  of  the  tradition,  that  it  is  oral, 
is  the  essence  of  the  difference  of  the  old  type  of  man- 
agement from  science,  or  even  system,  which  must 
be  written. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  make  more  definite  here  the 
content  of  this  oldest  type  of  management,  rather  be- 
ing satisfied  with  the  extent,  and  accepting  for  work- 
ing use  the  name  "  Traditional "  with  the  generally 
accepted  definition  of  that  name. 

Definition  of  the  Second  Type  of  Management. — 
The  second  type  of  management  is  called  "  Interim  " 
or  "  Transitory  "  management.  It  includes  all  man- 
agement that  is  consciously  passing  into  Scientific 
Management  and  embraces  all  stages,  from  manage- 
ment that  has  incorporated  one  scientifically  derived 
principle,  to  management  that  has  adopted  all  but 
one  such  principle. 

Preferable    Name   for   Second  Type    of   Manage- 

12  The  idea  called  to  mind  by  the  use  of  a  given  word. — Ed. 


12  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ment. —  Perhaps  the  name  "  Transitory  "  is  slightly- 
preferable  in  that,  though  the  element  of  temporari- 
ness  is  present  in  both  words,  it  is  more  strongly  em- 
phasized in  the  latter.  The  usual  habit  of  associating 
with  it  the  ideas  of  "  fleeting,  evanescent,  ephemeral, 
momentary,  short-lived,"  may  have  an  influence  on 
hastening  the  completion  of  the  installing  of  Scien- 
tific Management. 

Definition  of  the  Third  T3^e  of  Management. — 
The  third  form  of  management  is  called  "  Ultimate," 
"  measured  Functional,"  or  "  Scientific, "  manage- 
ment, and  might  also  be  called, —  but  for  the  objec- 
tion of  Dr.  Taylor,  the  "Taylor  Plan  of  Manage- 
ment." This  differs  from  the  first  two  types  men- 
tioned in  that  it  is  a  definite  plan  of  management  syn- 
thesized from  scientific  analysis  of  the  data  of 
management.  In  other  words.  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is  that  management  which  is  a  science,  i.  e., 
which  operates  according  to  known,  formulated,  and 
applied  laws.^^ 

Preferable  Name  of  the  Third  Type  of  Manage- 
ment.—  The  name  "  Ultimate  "  has,  especially  to  the 
person  operating  under  the  transitory  stage,  all  the 
charm  and  inspiration  of  a  goal.  It  has  all  the  in- 
centives to  accomplishment  of  a  clearly  circumscribed 
task.  Its  very  definiteness  makes  it  seem  possible 
of  attainment.  It  is  a  great  satisfaction  to  one  who, 
during  a  lifetime  of  managing  effort,  has  tried  one 
offered  improvement  after  another  to  be  convinced 
that  he  has  found  the  right  road  at  last.     The  name 

13  Henry  R.  Towne,  Introduction  to  Shop  Management.    (Harper 
&  Bros.) 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  13 

is,  perhaps,  of  greatest  value  in  attracting  the  atten- 
tion of  the  uninformed  and,  as  the  possibiHties  of  the 
subject  can  fulfill  the  most  exacting  demands,  the 
attention  once  secured  can  be  held. 

The  name  "  measured  functional  "  is  the  most  de- 
scriptive, but  demands  the  most  explanation.  The 
principle  of  functionalization  is  one  of  the  underlying, 
fundamental  principles  of  Scientific  Management.  It 
is  not  as  necessary  to  stop  to  define  it  here,  as  it  is 
necessary  to  discuss  the  definition,  the  principle,  and 
the  underlying  psychology,  at  length  later. 

The  name  "  scientific  "  while  in  some  respects  not 
as  appropriate  as  are  any  of  the  other  names,  has  al- 
ready received  the  stamp  of  popular  approval.  In 
derivation  it  is  beyond  criticism.  It  also  describes 
exactly,  as  has  been  said,  the  difference  between  the 
older  forms  of  management  and  the  new.  Even  its 
"  fringe  "  of  association  is,  or  at  least  was  when  first 
used,  all  that  could  be  desired;  but  the  name  is,  un- 
fortunately, occasionally  used  indiscriminately  for 
any  sort  of  system  and  for  schemes  of  operation  that 
are  not  based  on  time  study.  It  has  gradually  be- 
come identified  more  or  less  closely  with 

1.  the  Taylor  Plan  of  Management 

2.  what  we  have  defined  as  the  "  Transitory  "  plan 
of  management 

3.  management  which  not  only  is  not  striving  to 
be  scientific,  but  which  confounds  "  science  "  with 
"  system."  Both  its  advocates  and  opponents  have 
been  guilty  of  misuse  of  the  word.  Still,  in  spite  of 
this,  the  very  fact  that  the  word  has  had  a  wide  use. 
that  it  has  become  habitual  to  think  of  the  new  type 


14  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  management  as  "  Scientific,"  makes  its  choice  ad- 
visable. We  shall  use  it,  but  restrict  its  content. 
With  us  "  Scientific  Management "  is  used  to  mean 
the  complete  Taylor  plan  of  management,  with  no 
modifications  and  no  deviations. 

We  may  summarize  by  saying  that : 

1.  the  popular  name  is  Scientific  Management, 

2.  the  inspiring  name  is  Ultimate  management, 

3.  the  descriptive  name  is  measured  Functional 
management, 

4.  the  distinctive  name  is  the  Taylor  Plan  of  Man- 
agement. 

For  the  purpose  of  this  book.  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is,  then,  the  most  appropriate  name.  Through 
its  use,  the  reader  is  enabled  to  utilize  all  his  associa- 
tions, and  through  his  study  he  is  able  to  restrict  and 
order  the  content  of  the  term. 

Relationship  Between  the  Three  Types  of  Manage- 
ment.—  From  the  foregoing  definitions  and  descrip- 
tions it  will  be  clear  that  the  three  types  of  manage- 
ment are  closely  related.  Three  of  the  names  given 
bring  out  this  relationship  most  clearly.  These  are 
Traditional  (i.  e..  Primitive),  Interim,  and  Ultimate. 
These  show,  also,  that  the  relationship  is  genetic,  i.  e., 
that  the  second  form  grows  out  of  the  first,  but  passes 
through  to  the  third.     The  growth  is  evolutional. 

Under  the  first  type,  or  in  the  first  stage  of  man- 
agement, the  laws  or  principles  underlying  right  man- 
agement are  usually  unknown,  hence  disregarded. 

In  the  second  stage,  the  laws  are  known  and  in- 
stalled as  fast  as  functional  foremen  can  be  taught 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  15 

their  new  duties  and  the  resistances  of  human  nature 
can  be  overcome.^* 

In  the  third  stage  the  managing  is  operated  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  recognized  laws  of  management. 

Psychological  Significance  of  This  Relationship. — 
The  importance  of  the  knowledge  and  of  the  desire 
for  it  can  scarcely  be  overestimated.  This  again 
makes  plain  the  value  of  the  psychological  study  of 
management. 

Possible  Psychological  Studies  of  Management. — 
In  making  this  psychological  study  of  management, 
it  would  be  possible  to  take  up  the  three  types  as  de- 
fined above,  separately  and  in  order,  and  to  discuss 
the-  place  of  the  mind  in  each,  at  length ;  but  such  a 
method  would  not  only  result  in  needless  repetition, 
but  also  in  most  difficult  comparisons  when  final  re- 
sults were  to  be  deduced  and  formulated. 

It  would,  again,  be  possible  to  take  up  the  various 
elements  or  divisions  of  psychological  study  as  de- 
termined by  a  consensus  of  psychologists,  and  to  illus- 
trate each  in  turn  from  the  three  types  of  manage- 
ment; but  the  results  from  any  such  method  would 
be  apt  to  seem  unrelated  and  impractical,  i.  e.,  it 
would  be  a  lengthy  process  to  get  results  that  would 
be  of  immediate,  practical  use  in  managing. 

Plan  of  Psychological  Study  Used  Here. —  It  has, 
therefore,  seemed  best  to  base  the  discussion  that  is 
to  follow  upon  arbitrary  divisions  of  scientific  man- 
agement, that  is  — 

1*  F.   W.   Taylor,   Principles   of  Scientific   Management,   p.    123. 
(Harper  &  Bros.) 


iG  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

1.  To  enumerate  the  underlying  principles  on 
which  scientific  management  rests. 

2.  To  show  in  how  far  the  other  two  types  of  man- 
agement vary  from  Scientific  Management. 

3.  To  discuss  the  psychological  aspect  of  each  prin- 
ciple. 

Advantages  of  This  Plan  of  Study. —  In  this  way 
the  reader  can  gain  an  idea  of 

1.  The  relation  of  Scientific  Management  to  the 
other  types  of  management. 

2.  The  structure  of  Scientific  Management. 

3.  The  relation  between  the  various  elements  of 
Scientific  Management. 

4.  The  psychology  of  management  in  general,  and 
of  the  three  types  of  management  in  particular. 

Underlying  Ideas  and  Divisions  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement.—  These  underlying  ideas  are  grouped  un- 
der nine  divisions,  as  follows:  — 

1.  Individuality. 

2.  Functionalization. 

3.  Measurement. 

4.  Analysis  and  Synthesis. 

5.  Standardization. 

6.  Records  and  Programmes. 

7.  Teaching. 

8.  Incentives. 

9.  Welfare. 

It  is  here  only  necessary  to  enumerate  these  di- 
visions.    Each  will  be  made  the  subject  of  a  chapter. 

Derivation  of  These  Divisions. —  These  divisions 
lay  no  claim  to  being  anything  but  underlying  ideas 
of  Scientific  Management,  that  embrace  varying  num- 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  17 

bers  of  established  elements  that  can  easily  be  sub- 
jected to  the  scrutiny  of  psychological  investigation. 

The  discussion  will  be  as  little  technical  as  is  pos- 
sible, will  take  nothing  for  granted  and  will  cite 
references  at  every  step.  This  is  a  new  field  of  in- 
vestigation, and  the  utmost  care  is  necessary  to  avoid 
generalizing  from  insufficient  data. 

Derivation  of  Scientific  Management. —  There  has 
been  much  speculation  as  to  the  age  and  origin  of 
Scientific  Management.  The  results  of  this  are  in- 
teresting, but  are  not  of  enough  practical  value  to  be 
repeated  here.  Many  ideas  of  Scientific  Management 
can  be  traced  back,  more  or  less  clearly  and  directly, 
to  thinkers  of  the  past;  but  the  Science  of  Manage- 
ment, as  such,  was  discovered,  and  the  deduction  of 
its  laws,  or  "  principles,"  made  possible  when  Dr. 
Frederick  W.  Taylor  discovered  and  applied  Time 
Study.  Having  discovered  this,  he  constructed 
from  it  and  the  other  fundamental  principles  a  com- 
plete whole. 

Mr.  George  lies  in  that  most  interesting  and  in- 
structive of  books,  "  Inventors  at  Work,"  ^^  has 
pointed  out  the  importance,  to  development  in  any 
line  of  progress  or  science,  of  measuring  devices  and 
methods.  Contemporaneous  with,  or  previous  to, 
the  discovery  of  the  device  or  method,  must  come  the 
discovery  or  determination  of  the  most  profitable  unit 
of  measurement  which  will,  of  itself,  best  show  the 
variations  in  efficiency  from  class.  When  Dr.  Taylor 
discovered  units  of  measurement  for  determining, 
prior  to  performance,  the  amount  of  any  kind  of 
1"  Doubleday,  Page  &  Co. 


i8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

work  that  a  worker  could  do  and  the  amount  of  rest 
he  must  have  during  the  performance  of  that  work, 
then,  and  not  until  then,  did  management  become  a 
science.  On  this  hangs  the  science  of  management.^® 
Outline  of  Method  of  Investigation.^  In  the  dis- 
cussion of  each  of  the  nine  divisions  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement, the  following  topics  must  be  treated : 

1.  Definition  of  the  division  and  its  underlying  idea. 

2.  Appearance  and  importance  of  the  idea  in  Tra- 
ditional and  Transitory  Management. 

3.  Appearance  and  importance  of  the  idea  in  Scien- 
tific Management. 

4.  Elements  of  Scientific  Management  which  show 
the  effects  of  the  idea. 

5.  Results  of  the  idea  upon  work  and  workers. 
These  topics  will  be  discussed  in  such  order  as  the 

particular  division  investigated  demands.  The  psy- 
chological significance  of  the  appearance  or  non-ap- 
pearance of  the  idea,  and  of  the  effect  of  the  idea, 
will  be  noted.  The  results  will  be  summarized  at  the 
close  of  each  chapter,  in  order  to  furnish  data  for 
drawing  conclusions  at  the  close  of  the  discussion. 

Conclusions  to  be   Reached. —  These   conclusions 
will  include  the  following:  — 

1.  "Scientific  Management"  is  a  science. 

2.  It  alone,  of  the  Three  Types  of  Management,  is 
a  science. 

3.  Contrary  to  a  widespread  belief  that  Scientific 
Management  kills  individuality,  it  is  built  on  the  basic 

1^  F.    W.    Taylor,    Principles    of   Scientific   Management,   p.    137. 
(Harper  &  Bros.) 


DESCRIPTION  AND  GENERAL  OUTLINE  19 

principle  of  recognition  of  the  individual,  not  only  as 
an  economic  unit  but  also  as  a  personality,  with  all 
the  idiosyncrasies  that  distinguish  a  person. 

4.  Scientific  Management  fosters  individuality  by 
functionalizing  w^ork. 

5.  Measurement,  in  Scientific  Management,  is  of 
ultimate  units  of  subdivision. 

6.  These  measured  ultimate  units  are  combined 
into  methods  of  least  w^aste. 

7.  Standardization  under  Scientific  Management 
applies  to  all  elements. 

8.  The  accurate  records  of  Scientific  Management 
make  accurate  programmes  possible  of  fulfillment. 

9.  Through  the  teaching  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment the  management  is  unified  and  made  self-per- 
petuating. 

10.  The  method  of  teaching  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is  a  distinct  and  valuable  contribution  to  Edu- 
cation. 

11.  Incentives  under  Scientific  Management  not 
only  stimulate  but  benefit  the  worker. 

12.  It  is  for  the  ultimate  as  well  as  immediate  wel- 
fare of  the  worker  to  work  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment. 

13.  Scientific  Management  is  applicable  to  all 
fields  of  activity,  and  to  mental  as  well  as  physical 
work. 

14.  Scientific  Management  is  applicable  to  self- 
management  as  well  as  to  managing  others. 

15.  It  teaches  men  to  cooperate  with  the  manage- 
ment as  well  as  to  manage. 


20  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

i6.  It  is  a  device  capable  of  use  by  all. 

17.  The  psychological  element  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement is  the  most  important  element. 

18.  Because  Scientific  Management  is  psychologic- 
ally right  it  is  the  ultimate  form  of  management. 

19.  This  psychological  study  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment emphasizes  especially  the  teaching  features. 

20.  Scientific  Management  simultaneously 

a.  increases  output  and  wages  and  lowers  costs. 

b.  eliminates  waste. 

c.  turns  unskilled  labor  into  skilled. 

d.  provides  a  system  of  self-perpetuating  welfare. 

e.  reduces  the  cost  of  living. 

f.  bridges  the  gap  between  the  college  trained  and 
the  apprenticeship  trained  worker. 

g.  forces  capital  and  labor  to  cooperate  and  to 
promote  industrial  peace. 


CHAPTER  II 
INDIVIDUALITY 

Definition  of  Individuality. — "  An  individual  is  a 
single  thing,  a  being  that  is,  or  is  regarded  as,  a 
unit.  An  individual  is  opposed  to  a  crowd.  In- 
dividual action  is  opposed  to  associate  action.  Indi- 
vidual interests  are  opposed  to  common  or  com- 
munity interests."  These  definitions  give  us  some 
idea  of  the  extent  of  individuality.  Individuality  is  a 
particular  or  distinctive  characteristic  of  an  indi- 
vidual; "that  quality  or  aggregate  of  qualities 
which  distinguishes  one  person  or  thing  from  an- 
other,   idiosyncrasy."     This    indicates    the    content. 

For  our  purpose,  we  may  define  the  study  of  in- 
dividuality as  a  consideration  of  the  individual  as 
a  unit  with  special  characteristics.  That  it  is  a  unit 
signifies  that  it  is  one  of  many  and  that  it  has  like- 
ness to  the  many.  That  it  has  special  characteristics 
shows  that  it  is  one  of  many,  but  different  from  the 
many.  This  consideration  of  individuality  empha- 
sizes both  the  common  element  and  the  diverging 
characteristics. 

Individuality  as  Treated  in  This  Chapter. —  The 
recognition  of  individuality  is  the  subject  of  this  chap- 
ter.    The  utilization  of  this  individuality  in  its  devia- 

21 


22  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

tion  from  class,  is  the  subject  of  the  chapter  that  fol- 
lows, Functionalization. 

Individuality  as  Considered  by  Psychology. —  Psy- 
chology has  not  always  emphasized  the  importance 
of  the  individual  as  a  unit  for  study.  Prof.  Ladd's 
definition  of  psychology,  quoted  and  endorsed  by 
Prof.  James,  is  "  the  description  and  explanation  of 
states  of  consciousness,  as  such."  ^  "  By  states  of 
consciousness,"  says  James,  "  are  meant  such  things 
as  sensation,  desires,  emotions,  cognitions,  reason- 
ings, decisions,  volitions,  and  the  like."  This  puts 
the  emphasis  on  such  divisions  of  consciousness  as, 
"  attention,"  "  interest,"  and  "  will." 

With  the  day  of  experimental  psychology  has  come 
the  importance  of  the  individual  self  as  a  subject  of 
study,^  and  psychology  has  come  to  be  defined,  as 
Calkins  defines  it,  as  a  "  science  of  the  self  as  con- 
scious." ^ 

We  hear  much  in  the  talk  of  today  of  the  "  psychol- 
ogy of  the  crowd,"  the  "  psychology  of  the  mob,"  and 
the  "  psychology  of  the  type,"  etc.,  but  the  mind  that 
is  being  measured,  and  from  whose  measurements  the 
laws  are  being  deduced  and  formulated  is,  at  the  pres- 
ent the  individual  mind.* 

The  psychology  which  interested  itself  particularly 
in  studying  such  divisions  of  mental  activity  as  at- 
tention, will,  habit,  etc.,  emphasizes  more  particularly 
the  likenesses  of  minds.     It  is  necessary  to  under- 

1  William  James,  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  p.  I. 

2  Hugo  Miinsterberg,  American  Problems,  p.  34. 

3  Mary  Whiton  Calkins,  A  First  Book  in  Psychology,  p.  I. 
*  James  Sully,  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology,  p.  14. 


INDIVIDUALITY  23 

Stand  thoroughly  all  of  these  likenesses  before  one 
can  be  sure  what  the  differences,  or  idiosyncrasies, 
are,  and  how  important  they  are,  because,  while  the 
likenesses  furnish  the  background,  it  is  the  differ- 
ences that  are  most  often  actually  utilized  by  manage- 
ment. These  must  be  determined  in  order  to  com- 
pute and  set  the  proper  individual  task  for  the  given 
man  from  standard  data  of  the  standard,  or  first-class 
man. 

In  any  study  of  the  individual,  the  following  facts 
must  be  noted:  — 

1.  The  importance  of  the  study  of  the  individual, 
and  the  comparatively  small  amount  of  work  that  has 
as  yet  been  done  in  that  field. 

2.  The  difficulty  of  the  study,  and  the  necessity  for 
great  care,  not  only  in  the  study  itself,  but  in  deducing 
laws  from  it. 

3.  The  necessity  of  considering  any  one  individual 
trait  as  modified  by  all  the  other  traits  of  the  indi- 
vidual. 

4.  The  importance  of  the  individual  as  distinct  from 
the  type. 

Many  students  are  so  interested  in  studying  types 
and  deducing  laws  which  apply  to  types  in  general, 
that  they  lose  sight  of  the  fact  that  the  individual  is 
the  basis  of  the  study, —  that  individuality  is  that  for 
which  they  must  seek  and  for  which  they  must  con- 
stantly account.  As  Sully  says,  we  must  not  em- 
phasize '"''  typical  developments  in  a  new  individual," 
at  the  expense  of  "  typical  development  in  a  new  in- 
dividual." ^     It    is    the    fact    that    the    development 

^  James  Sully,  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology,  p.  577. 


34  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

occurs  in  an  individual,  and  not  that  the  development 
is  typical,  that  we  should  emphasize. 

Individuality  Seldom  Recognized  Under  Tradi- 
tional Management. — 'Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment there  was  little  or  no  systematized  method  for 
the  recognition  of  individuality  or  individual  fitness.^ 
The  worker  usually  was,  in  the  mind  of  the  manager, 
one  of  a  crowd,  his  only  distinguishing  mark  being 
the  amount  of  work  which  he  was  capable  of  perform- 
ing. 

Selecting  Workers  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment.—  In  selecting  men  to  do  work,  there  was  little 
or  no  attempt  to  study  the  individuals  who  applied  for 
work.  The  matter  of  selection  was  more  of  a  proc- 
ess of  "  guess  work  "  than  of  exact  measurement,  and 
the  highest  form  of  test  was  considered  to  be  that  of 
having  the  man  actually  tried  out  by  being  given 
a  chance  at  the  work  itself.  There  was  not  only  a 
great  waste  of  time  on  the  work,  because  men  unfitted 
to  it  could  not  turn  it  out  so  successfully,  but  there 
•also  was  a  waste  of  the  worker,  and  many  times  a 
positive  injury  to  the  worker,  by  his  being  put  at 
work  which  he  was  unfitted  either  to  perform,  to 
work  at  continuously,  or  both. 

In  the  most  progressive  type  of  Traditional  Man- 
agement there  was  usually  a  feeling,  however,  that  if 
the  labor  market  offered  even  temporarily  a  greater 
supply  than  the  work  in  hand  demanded,  it  was  wise 
to  choose  those  men  to  do  the  work  who  were  best 
fitted  for  it,  or  who  were  willing  to  work  for  less 
wages.     It  is  surprising  to  find  in  the  traditional  type, 

«  H.  L.  Gantt,  Work,  Wages  and  Profits,  p.  52. 


INDIVIDUALITY  aS 

even  up  to  the  present  day,  how  often  men  were 
selected  for  their  strength  and  physique,  rather  than 
for  any  special  capabilities  fitting  them  for  working 
in,  or  at,  the  particular  line  of  work  to  be  done. 

Output  Seldom  Separated  Under  Traditional  Man- 
agement.—  Under  Traditional  Management  especi- 
ally on  day  work  the  output  of  the  men  was  not 
usually  separated,  nor  was  the  output  recorded 
separately,  as  can  be  done  even  with  the  work  of 
gangs. 

Few  Individual  Tasks  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment.—  Seldom,  if  ever,  was  an  individual  task  set 
for  a  worker  on  day  work,  or  piece  work,  and  even  if 
one  were  set,  it  was  not  scientifically  determined. 
The  men  were  simply  set  to  work  alone  or  in  gangs, 
as  the  work  demanded,  and  if  the  foreman  was  over- 
worked or  lazy,  allowed  to  take  practically  their  own 
time  to  do  the  work.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
foreman  was  a  "  good  driver,"  the  men  might  be 
pushed  to  their  utmost  limit  of  their  individual  un- 
directed speed,  regardless  of  their  welfare. 

Little  Individual  Teaching  Under  Traditional  Man- 
agement.—  Not  having  a  clear  idea  either  of  the 
present  fitness  and  the  future  possibilities  of  the 
worker,  or  the  requirements  of  the  work,  no  intel- 
ligent attempt  could  be  made  at  efficient  individual 
teaching.  What  teaching  was  done  was  in  the  form 
of  directions  for  all,  concerning  the  work  in  general, 
the  directions  being  given  by  an  overworked  foreman, 
the  holding  of  whose  position  often  depended  more 
upon  whether  his  employer  made  money  than  upon 
the  way  his  men  were  taught,  or  worked. 


26  THE  rPSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Seldom  an  Individual  Reward  Under  Traditional 
Management. — As  a  typical  example  of  disregard  of 
individuality,  the  worker  in  the  household  may  be 
cited,  and  especially  the  "  general  housework  girl." 
Selected  with  no  knowledge  of  her  capabilities,  and 
with  little  or  no  scientific  or  even  systematized  knowl- 
edge of  the  work  that  she  is  expected  to  do,  there  is 
little  or  no  thought  of  a  prescribed  and  definite  task, 
no  teaching  specially  adapted  to  the  individual  needs 
of  the  taught,  and  no  reward  in  proportion  to  effi- 
ciency. 

Cause  of  These  Lacks  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment.—  The  fault  lies  not  in  any  desire  of  the  man- 
agers to  do  poor  or  wasteful  work,  or  to  treat  their 
workers  unfairly, —  but  in  a  lack  of  knowledge  and  of 
accurate  methods  for  obtaining,  conserving  and  trans- 
mitting knowledge.  Under  Traditional  Management 
no  one  individual  knows  precisely  what  is  to  be  done. 
Such  management  seldom  knows  how  work  could 
best  be  done ;  —  never  knows  how  much  work  each 
individual  can  do.'^  Understanding  neither  work  nor 
workers,  it  can  not  adjust  the  one  to  the  other  so  as 
to  obtain  least  waste.  Having  no  conception  of  the 
importance  of  accurate  measurement,  it  has  no 
thought  of  the  individual  as  a  unit. 

Individuality  Recognized  Under  Transitory  Man- 
agement.—  Recognition  of  individuality  is  one  of  the 
principles  first  apparent  under  Transitory  Manage- 
ment. 

This  is  apt  to  demonstrate  itself  first  of  all  in  caus- 
ing the  outputs  of  the  workers  to  "  show  up  "  sepa- 

"^  F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  p.  25.     (Harper  &  Bros.) 


INDIVIDUALITY  27 

rately,  rewarding  these  separated  outputs,  and  reward- 
ing each  worker  for  his  individual  output. 

Benefits  of  This  Recognition. —  The  benefits  of  in- 
troducing these  features  first  are  that  the  worker, 
(i)  seeing  his  individual  output,  is  stimulated  to 
measure  it,  and  (2)  receiving  compensation  in  ac- 
cordance with  his  output,  is  satisfied;  and  (3)  ob- 
serving that  records  are  necessary  to  determine  the 
amount  of  output  and  pay,  is  glad  to  have  accurate 
measurement  and  the  other  features  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement introduced. 

Individuality  a  Fundamental  Principle  of  Scientific 
Management. —  Under  Scientific  Management  the 
individual  is  the  unit  to  be  measured.  Functionaliza- 
tion  is  based  upon  utilizing  the  particular  powers  and 
special  abilities  of  each  man.  Measurement  is  of 
the  individual  man  and  his  work.  Analysis  and 
synthesis  build  up  methods  by  which  the  individual 
can  best  do  his  work.  Standards  are  of  the  work  of 
an  individual,  a  standard  man,  and  the  task  is  always 
for  an  individual,  being  that  percentage  of  the 
standard  man's  task  that  the  particular  individual  can 
do.  Records  are  of  individuals,  and  are  made  in 
order  to  show  and  reward  individual  effort.  Specific 
individuals  are  taught  those  things  that  they,  in- 
dividually, require.  Incentives  are  individual  both 
in  the  cases  of  rewards  and  punishments,  and,  finally, 
it  is  the  welfare  of  the  individual  worker  that  is  con- 
sidered, without  the  sacrifice  of  any  for  the  good  of 
the  whole. 

Individuality  Considered  in  Selecting  Workers. — 
Under   Scientific   Management   individuality  is   con- 


38  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

sidered  in  selecting  workers  as  it  could  not  be  under 
either  of  the  other  two  forms  of  management.  This 
for  several  reasons: 

1.  The  work  is  more  specialized,  hence  requires 
more  carefully  selected  men. 

2.  With  standardized  methods  comes  a  knowledge 
to  the  managers  of  the  qualifications  of  the  "  standard 
men  "  who  can  best  do  the  work  and  continuously 
thrive. 

3.  Motion  study,  in  its  investigation  of  the  worker, 
supplies  a  list  of  variations  in  workers  that  can  be 
utilized  in  selecting  men.^ 

Variables  of  the  Worker. —  This  list  now  includes 
at  least  50  or  60  variables,  and  shows  the  possible 
elements  which  may  demand  consideration.  When 
it  is  remembered  that  the  individual  selected  may 
need  a  large  or  small  proportion  of  most  of  the  vari- 
ables in  order  to  do  his  particular  work  most  suc- 
cessfully, and  that  every  single  one  of  these  variables, 
as  related  to  the  others,  may,  in  some  way  aflfect  his 
output  and  his  welfare  in  doing  his  assigned  work,  the 
importance  of  taking  account  of  individuality  in  selec- 
tion is  apparent. 

Scientific  Management  Needs  Support  in  Studying 
Workers. —  The  best  of  management  is  by  no  means 
at  its  ultimate  stage  in  practice  in  this  field.  This, 
not  because  of  a  lack  in  the  laws  of  management,  but 
because,  so  far,  Scientific  Management  has  not  re- 
ceived proper  support  from  other  lines  of  activity. 

Present  Lack  of  Knowledge  of  Applicants. —  At 
present,  the  men  who  apply  to  the  Industries  for  posi- 

8  F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Motion  Study,  p.  7. 


INDIVIDUALITY  29 

tions  have  no  scientifically  determined  idea  of  their 
own  capabilities,  neither  has  there  been  any  effort 
in  the  training  or  experience  of  most  of  those  who 
apply  for  work  for  the  first  time  to  show  them  how 
fit  they  really  are  to  do  the  work  which  they  wish 
to  do. 

Supplements  Demanded  by  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.—  Before  the  worker  can  be  scientifically 
selected  so  that  his  individuality  can  be  appreciated, 
Scientific  Management  must  be  supplemented  in  two 
ways :  — 

1.  By  psychological  and  physiological  study  of 
workers  under  it.  By  such  study  of  the  effect  of 
various  kinds  of  standardized  work  upon  the  mind 
and  body,  standard  requirements  for  men  who  de- 
sire to  do  the  work  can  be  made. 

2.  By  scientific  study  of  the  worker  made  before 
he  comes  into  the  Industries,  the  results  of  which 
shall  show  his  capabilities  and  possibilities.^ 

Whence  This  Help  Must  Come. —  This  study  must 
be  made 

a.  In  the  Vocational  Guidance  Work. 

b.  In  the  Academic  Work, 

and  in  both  fields  psychological  and  physiological 
investigations  are  called  for. 

Work  of  Vocational  Guidance  Bureaus. — -Voca- 
tional Guidance  Bureaus  are,  at  present,  doing  a 
wonderful  work  in  their  line.  This  work  divides  it- 
self into  two  parts: 

I.  Determining  the  capabilities  of  the  boy,  that  is, 

•L.  B.  Blan,  A  Special  Study  of  the  Incidence  of  Retardation^ 
p.  80. 


30  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

seeing  what  he  is,  by  nature  and  training,  best  fitted 
to  do. 

2.  Determining  the  possibilities  of  his  securing 
work  in  the  line  where  he  is  best  fitted  to  work,  that 
is,  studying  the  industrial  opportunities  that  offer, 
and  the  "  welfare  "  of  the  worker  under  each,  using 
the  word  welfare  in  the  broadest  sense,  of  general 
wellbeing,  mental,  physical,  moral  and  financial. 

Work  of  Academic  World. —  The  Academic  World 
is  also,  wherever  it  is  progressive,  attempting  to  study 
the  student,  and  to  develop  him  so  that  he  can  be 
the  most  efficient  individual.  Progressive  educators 
realize  that  schools  and  colleges  must  stand  or  fall, 
as  efficient,  as  the  men  they  train  become  successful 
or  unsuccessful  in  their  vocations,  as  well  as  in  their 
personal  culture. 

Need  for  Psychological  Study  in  All  Fields. —  In 
both  these  complementary  lines  of  activity,  as  in 
Scientific  Management  itself,  the  need  for  psycholog- 
ical study  is  evident. ^°  Through  it,  only,  can  scien- 
tific progress  come.  Here  is  emphasized  again  the 
importance  of  measurement.  Through  accurate 
measurement  of  the  mind  and  the  body  only  can  indi- 
viduality be  recognized,  conserved  and  developed  as 
it  should  be. 

Preparedness  of  Experimental  Psychology. —  Ex- 
perimental psychology  has  instruments  of  precision 
with  which  to  measure  and  test  the  minds  and  bodies 
brought  to  it,  and  its  leading  exponents  are  so  broad- 
ening the  scope  of  its  activities  that  it  is  ready  and 
glad  to  plan  for  investigations. 

10  Hugo  Miinsterberg,  American  Problems,  pp.  38-39. 


INDIVIDUALITY  31 

Method  of  Selection  Under  Ultimate  Manage- 
ment.—  Under  Ultimate  Management,  the  minds  of 
the  workers, —  and  of  the  managers  too, —  will  have 
been  studied,  and  the  results  recorded  from  earliest 
childhood.  This  record,  made  by  trained  investiga- 
tors, will  enable  vocational  guidance  directors  to  tell 
the  child  what  he  is  fitted  to  be,  and  thus  to  help  the 
schools  and  colleges  to  know  how  best  to  train  him, 
that  is  to  say,  to  provide  what  he  will  need  to  know 
to  do  his  life  work,  and  also  those  cultural  studies 
that  his  vocational  work  may  lack,  and  that  may  be 
required  to  build  out  his  best  development  as  an 
individual. 

It  is  not  always  recognized  that  even  the  student 
who  can  afford  to  postpone  his  technical  training  until 
he  has  completed  a  general  culture  course,  requires 
that  his  culture  course  be  carefully  planned.  Not 
only  must  he  choose  those  general  courses  that  will 
serve  as  a  foundation  for  his  special  study,  and  that 
will  broaden  and  enrich  his  study,  but  also  he  must 
be  provided  with  a  counter-balance,--— with  interests 
that  his  special  work  might  never  arouse  in  him. 
Thus  the  field  of  Scientific  Management  can  be  nar- 
rowed to  determining  and  preparing  standard  plans 
for  standard  specialized  men,  and  selecting  men  to 
fill  these  places  from  competent  applicants. 

What  part  of  the  specialized  training  needed  by 
the  special  work  shall  be  given  in  schools  and  what 
in  the  industries  themselves  can  be  determined  later. 
The  "  twin  apprentice  "  plan  offers  one  solution  of 
the  problem  that  has  proved  satisfactory  in  many 
places.     The   psychological   study   should   determine 


3a  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

through  which  agency  knowledge  can  best  come  at 
any  particular  stage  of  mental  growth. 

Effect  on  Workers  of  Such  Selection. —  As  will  be 
shown  at  greater  length  under  "  Incentives,"  Scien- 
tific Management  aims  in  every  way  to  encourage 
initiative.  The  outline  here  given  as  to  how  men 
must,  ultimately,  under  Scientific  Management,  be 
selected  serves  to  show  that,  far  from  being  "  made 
machines  of,"  men  are  selected  to  reach  that  special 
place  where  their  individuality  can  be  recognized  and 
rewarded  to  the  greatest  extent. 

Selection  Under  Scientific  Management  To-day. — 
At  the  present  day,  the  most  that  Scientific  Manage- 
ment can  do,  in  the  average  case,  is  to  determine  the 
type  of  men  needed  for  any  particular  kind  of  work, 
and  then  to  select  that  man  who  seems,  from  such 
observations  as  can  be  made,  best  to  conform  to  the 
type.  The  accurate  knowledge  of  the  requirements 
of  the  work,  and  the  knowledge  of  variables  of  the 
worker  make  even  a  cursory  observation  more  rich  in 
results  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  Even  such  an 
apparently  obvious  observation,  as  that  the  very  fact 
that  a  man  claims  that  he  can  do  the  work  implies 
desire  and  will  on  his  part  to  do  it  that  may  overcome 
many  natural  lacks, —  even  this  is  an  advance  in  recog- 
nizing individuality. 

Effect  of  This  Selection. —  The  result  of  this  scien- 
tific selection  of  the  workman  is  not  only  better  work, 
but  also,  and  more  important  from  the  psychological 
side,  the  development  of  his  individuality.  It  is  not 
always  recognized  that   the  work  itself  is  a  great 


INDIVIDUALITY  33 

educator,  and  that  acute  cleverness  in  the  line  of 
work  to  which  he  is  fitted  comes  to  the  worker. 

Individuality  Developed  by  Separating  Outputs. — 
Under  Scientific  Management  the  work  of  each  man 
is  arranged  either  so  that  his  output  shows  up 
separately  and  on  the  individual  records,  or,  if  the 
work  is  such  that  it  seems  best  to  do  it  in  gangs, 
the  output  can  often  be  so  recorded  that  the  indi- 
vidual's output  can  be  computed  from  the  records. 

Purpose  of  Separating  Outputs. —  The  primary 
purpose  of  separating  the  output  is  to  see  what  the 
man  can  do,  to  record  this,  and  to  reward  the  man 
according  to  his  work,  but  this  separating  of  output 
has  also  an  individual  result,  which  is  even  more  im- 
portant than  the  result  aimed  at,  and  that  is  the  de- 
velopment of  individuality. 

Under  Traditional  Management  and  the  usual  "  day 
work,"  much  of  the  work  is  done  by  gangs  and  is 
observed  or  recorded  as  of  gangs.  Only  now  and 
then,  when  the  work  of  some  particular  individual 
shows  up  decidedly  better  or  worse  than  that  of  his 
fellows,  and  when  the  foreman  or  superintendent, 
or  other  onlooker,  happens  to  observe  this  is  the 
individual  appreciated,  and  then  only  in  the  most  in- 
exact, unsystematic  manner. 

Under  Scientific  Management,  making  individual 
output  show  up  separately  allows  of  individual  re- 
cording, tasks,  teaching  and  rewards. 

Effect  on  Athletic  Contests. —  Also,  with  this 
separation  of  the  work  of  the  individual  under  Scien- 
tific  Management   comes  the   possibility   of   a  real, 


34  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

scientific,  "  athletic  contest."  This  athletic  contest, 
which  proves  itself  so  successful  in  Traditional  Man- 
agement, even  when  the  men  are  grouped  as  gangs 
and  their  work  is  not  recorded  or  thought  of  sepa- 
rately^  proves  itself  quite  as  efficient  or  more  efficient 
under  Scientific  Management,  when  the  work  of  the 
man  shows  up  separately.  It  might  be  objected  that 
the  old  gang  spirit,  or  it  might  be  called  "  team  " 
spirit,  would  disappear  with  the  separation  of  the 
work.  This  is  not  so,  as  will  be  noted  by  a  com- 
parison to  a  baseball  team,  where  each  man  has  his 
separate  place  and  his  separate  work  and  where  his 
work  shows  up  separately  with  separate  records,  such 
as  "  batting  average  "  and  "  fielding  average."  Team 
spirit  is  the  result  of  being  grouped  together  against 
a  common  opponent,  and  it  will  be  the  same  in  any 
sort  of  work  when  the  men  are  so  grouped,  or  given 
to  understand  that  they  belong  on  the  same  side. 

The  following  twelve  rules  for  an  Athletic  Contest 
under  Transitory  System  are  quoted  as  exemplifying 
the  benefits  which  accrue  to  Individuality. 

1.  Men  must  have  square  deal. 

2.  Conditions  must  be  similar. 

3.  Men  must  be  properly  spaced  and  placed. 

4.  Output  must  show  up  separately. 

5.  Men  must  be  properly  started. 

6.  Causes  for  delay  must  be  eliminated. 

7.  Pace  maker  must  be  provided. 

8.  Time  for  rest  must  be  provided. 

9.  Individual  scores  must  be  kept  and  posted. 
10.  "  Audience  "  must  be  provided. 


INDIVIDUALITY  35 

11.  Rewards  must  be  prompt  and  provided  for  all 
good  scores  —  not,  for  winners  only. 

12.  Appreciation  must  be  shown.^^ 

This  list  shows  the  effects  of  many  fundamental 
principles  of  Scientific  Management, —  but  we  note 
particularly  here  that  over  half  the  rules  demand  that 
outputs  be  separated  as  a  prerequisite. 

None  of  the  benefits  of  the  Athletic  Contest  are 
lost  under  Scientific  Management.  The  only  re- 
strictions placed  are  that  the  men  shall  not  be  grouped 
according  to  any  distinction  that  would  cause  hatred 
or  ill  feeling,  that  the  results  shall  be  ultimately  bene- 
ficial to  the  workers  themselves,  and  that  all  high 
scores  shall  win  high  prizes. 

As  will  be  brought  out  later  under  "  Incentives," 
no  competition  is  approved  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment which  speeds  up  the  men  uselessly,  or  which 
brings  any  ill  feeling  between  the  men  or  any  feeling 
that  the  weaker  ones  have  not  a  fair  chance.  All  of 
these  things  are  contrary  to  Scientific  Management,  as 
well  as  contrary  to  common  sense,  for  it  goes  without 
saying  that  no  man  is  capable  of  doing  his  best  work 
permanently  if  he  is  worried  by  the  idea  that  he  will 
not  receive  the  square  deal,  that  someone  stronger 
than  he  will  be  allowed  to  cheat  or  to  domineer  over 
him,  or  that  he  will  be  speeded  up  to  such  an  extent 
that  while  his  work  will  increase  for  one  day,  the  next 
day  his  work  will  fall  down  because  of  the  effect  of 
the  fatigue  of  the  day  before. 

The  field  of  the  contests  is  widened,  as  separating 

1^  F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Cost  Reducing  System,  Chap.  III. 


36  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  the  work  of  the  individual  not  only  allows  for  com- 
petition between  individuals,  but  for  the  competition 
of  the  individual  with  his  own  records.  This  com- 
petition is  not  only  a  great,  constant  and  helpful  in- 
centive to  every  worker,  but  it  is  also  an  excellent 
means  of  developing  individuality. 

Advantages  to  Managers  of  Separating  Output. — 
The  advantages  to  the  managers  of  separating  the 
work  are  that  there  is  a  chance  to  know  exactly  who 
is  making  the  high  output,  and  that  the  spirit  of  com- 
petition which  prevails  when  men  compare  their  out- 
puts to  their  own  former  records  or  others,  leads  to 
increased  effort. 

Advantages  to  Workers  of  Separating  Output. — 
As  for  advantages"  to  the  men : 

By  separation  of  the  individual  work,  not  only  is 
the  man's  work  itself  shown,  but  at  the  same  time 
the  work  of  all  other  people  is  separated,  cut  away 
and  put  aside,  and  he  can  locate  the  man  who  is 
delaying  him  by,  for  example,  not  keeping  him  sup- 
plied with  materials.  The  man  has  not  only  an  op- 
portunity to  concentrate,  but  every  possible  incentive 
to  exercise  his  will  and  his  desire  to  do  things.  His 
attention  is  concentrated  on  the  fact  that  he  as  an 
individual  is  expected  to  do  his  very  best.  He  has 
the  moral  stimulus  of  responsibility.  He  has  the 
emotional  stimulus  of  competition.  He  has  the 
mental  stimulus  of  definiteness.  He  has,  most  valu- 
able of  all,  a  chance  to  be  an  entity  rather  than  one 
of  an  undiscriminated  gang.  This  chance  to  be  an 
individual,  or  personality,  is  in  great  contradistinc- 
tion to  the  popular  opinion  of  Scientific  Management, 


INDIVIDUALITY  37 

which  thinks  it  turns  men  into  machines.  A  very 
simple  example  of  the  effect  of  the  worker's  seeing 
his  output  show  up  separately  in  response  to  and  in 
proportion  to  his  effort  and  skill  is  that  of  boys  in 
the  lumber  producing  districts  chopping  edgings  for 
fire  wood.  Here  the  chopping  is  so  comparatively 
light  that  the  output  increased  very  rapidly,  and  the 
boy  delights  to  "  see  his  pile  of  fire  wood  grow." 

With  the  separation  of  the  work  comes  not  only 
the  opportunity  for  the  men  to  see  their  own  work,  but 
also  to  see  that  of  others,  and  there  comes  with  this 
the  spirit  of  imitation,  or  the  spirit  of  friendly  opposi- 
tion, either  of  which,  while  valuable  in  itself  is  even 
more  valuable  as  the  by-product  of  being  a  life-giving 
thought,  and  of  putting  life  into  the  work  such  as  there 
never  could  be  when  the  men  were  working  together, 
more  or  less  objectless,  because  they  could  not  see 
plainly  either  what  they  were  doing  themselves,  or 
what  others  were  doing. 

Separation  of  the  output  of  the  men  gives  them 
the  greatest  opportunity  to  develop.  It  gives  them 
a  chance  to  concentrate  their  attention  at  the  work  on 
which  they  are,  because  it  is  not  necessary  for  them 
to  waste  any  time  to  find  out  what  that  work  is. 
Their  work  stands  out  by  itself;  they  can  put  their 
whole  minds  to  that  work;  they  can  become  interested 
in  that  work  and  its  outcome,  and  they  can  be  posi- 
tive that  what  they  have  done  will  be  appreciated 
and  recognized,  and  that  it  will  have  a  good  effect, 
with  no  possibility  of  evil  effect,  upon  their  chance 
for  work  and  their  chance  for  pay  and  promotion  in 
the  future.     Definiteness  of  the  boundaries,  then,  is 


38  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

not  only  good  management  in  that  it  shows  up  the 
work  and  that  it  allows  each  man  to  see,  and  each 
man  over  him,  or  observing  him  to  see  exactly  what 
has  been  done, —  it  has  also  an  excellent  effect  upon 
the  worker's  mind. 

Individuality  Developed  by  Recording  Output 
Separately. —  The  spirit  of  individuality  is  brought 
out  still  more  clearly  by  the  fact  that  under  Scien- 
tific Management,  output  is  recorded  separately. 
This  recording  of  the  outputs  separately  is,  usually, 
and  very  successfully,  one  of  the  first  features  in- 
stalled in  Transitory  Management,  and  a  feature  very 
seldom  introduced,  even  tmconseious  of  its  worth,  in 
day  work  under  Traditional  Management.  It  is  one 
of  the  great  disadvantages  of  many  kinds  of  work, 
especially  in  this  day,  that  the  worker  does  only  a 
small  part  of  the  finished  article  and  that  he  has  a 
feeling  that  what  he  does  is  not  identified  perma- 
nently with  the  success  of  the  completed  whole.  We 
may  note  that  one  of  the  great  unsatisfying  features 
to  such  arts  as  acting  and  music,  is  that  no  matter 
how  wonderful  the  performer's  efforts,  there  was  no 
permanent  record  of  them;  that  the  work  of  the  day 
dies  with  the  day.  He  can  expect  to  live  only  in  the 
minds  and  hearts  of  the  hearers,  in  the  accounts  of 
spectators,  or  in  histories  of  the  stage. 

It  is,  therefore,  not  strange  that  the  world's  best 
actors  and  singers  are  now  grasping  the  opportunity 
to  make  their  best  efforts  permanent  through  the 
instrumentality  of  the  motion  picture  films  and  the 
talking  machine  records.  This  same  feeling,  minus 
the  glow  of  enthusiasm  that  at  least  attends  the  actor 


INDIVIDUALITY  39 

during  the  work,  is  present  in  more  or  less  degree 
in  the  mind  of  the  worker. 

Records  Make  Work  Seem  Worth  While. —  With 
the  feeling  that  his  work  is  recorded  comes  the  feel- 
ing that  the  work  is  really  worth  while,  for  even  if 
the  work  itself  does  not  last,  the  records  of  it  are  such 
as  can  go  on. 

Records  Give  Individuals  a  Feeling  of  Perma- 
nence.-^ With  recorded  individual  output  comes  also 
the  feeling  of  permanence,  of  credit  for  good  perform- 
ance. This  desire  for  permanence  shows  itself  all 
through  the  work  of  men  in  Traditional  Management, 
for  example  —  in  the  stone  cutter's  art  where  the 
man  who  had  successfully  dressed  the  stone  from 
the  rough  block  was  delighted  to  put  his  own  indi- 
vidual mark  on  it,  even  though  he  knew  that  that 
mark  probably  would  seldom,  if  ever,  be  noticed  again 
by  anyone  after  the  stone  was  set  in  the  wall.  It  is 
an  underlying  trait  of  the  human  mind  to  desire  this 
permanence  of  record  of  successful  effort,  and  ful- 
filling and  utilizing  this  desire  is  a  great  gain  of 
Scientific  Management. 

Mental  Development  of  Worker  Through  Rec- 
ords.—  It  is  not  only  for  his  satisfaction  that  the 
worker  should  see  his  records  and  realize  that  his 
work  has  permanence,  but  also  for  comparison  of  his 
work  not  only  with  his  own  record,  but  with  the  work 
of  others.  The  value  of  these  comparisons,  not  only 
to  the  management  but  to  the  worker  himself,  must 
not  be  underestimated.  The  worker  gains  mental  de- 
velopment and  physical  skill  by  studying  these  com- 
parisons. 


40  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Advantages  to  Worker  of  Making  his  Own  Rec- 
ords.—  These  possibilities  of  mental  development 
are  still  further  increased  when  the  man  makes  his 
own  records.  This  leads  to  closer  attention,  to  more 
interest  in  the  work,  and  to  a  realization  of  the  man  as 
to  what  the  record  really  means,  and  what  value  it 
represents.  Though  even  a  record  that  is  made  for 
him  and  is  posted  where  he  can  see  it  will  probably 
result  in  a  difference  in  his  pay  envelope,  no  such 
progress  is  likely  to  occur  as  when  the  man  makes  his 
own  record,  and  must  be  conscious  every  moment  of 
the  time  exactly  where  he  stands. 

Possibilities  of  Making  Individual  Records. — ^Rec- 
ords of  individual  efHciency  are  comparatively  easy 
to  make  when  output  is  separated.  But  even  when 
work  must  be  done  by  gangs  or  teams  of  men,  there 
is  provision  made  in  Scientific  Management  for  re- 
cording this  gang  work  in  such  a  way  that  either  the 
output  or  the  efficiency,  or  both,  of  each  man  shows 
up  separately.  This  may  be  done  in  several  ways, 
such  as,  for  example,  by  recording  the  total  time  of 
delays  avoidable  and  unavoidable,  caused  by  each 
man,  and  from  this  computing  individual  records. 
This  method  of  recording  is  psychologically  right, 
because  the  recording  of  the  delay  will  serve  as  a 
warning  to  the  man,  and  as  a  spur  to  him  not  to  cause 
delay  to  others  again. 

The  forcef ulness  of  the  "  don't "  and  the  "  never  " 
have  been  investigated  by  education.  Undoubtedly 
the  "  do  "  is  far  stronger,  but  in  this  particular  case 
the  command  deduced  from  the  records  of  delay  to 
others  is,  necessarily,  in  the  negative  form,  and  a 


INDIVIDUALITY  4X 

study  of  the  psychological  results  proves  most  in- 
structive. 
Benefits  to  Managers  of  Individual  Records. —  The 

value  of  the  training  to  the  foremen,  to  the  superin- 
tendents and  to  the  managers  higher  up,  who  study 
these  records,  as  well  as  to  the  timekeepers,  recorders 
and  clerks  in  the  Time  and  Cost  Department  who 
make  the  records,  is  obvious.  There  is  not  only  the 
possibility  of  appreciating  and  rewarding  the  worker, 
and  thus  stim.ulating  him  to  further  activity,  there  is 
also,  especially  in  the  Transitory  stage,  when  men 
are  to  be  chosen  on  whom  to  make  Time  Study  ob- 
servations, an  excellent  chance  to  compare  various 
methods  of  doing  work  and  their  results. 

Incentives  with  Individual  Records. —  The  greatest 
value  of  recorded  outputs  is  in  the  appreciation  of 
the  work  of  the  individual  that  becomes  possible. 
First  of  all,  appreciation  by  the  management,  which 
to  the  worker  must  be  the  most  important  of  all,  as 
it  means  to  him  a  greater  chance  for  promotion  and 
for  more  pay.  This  promotion  and  additional  pay 
are  amply  provided  for  by  Scientific  Management, 
as  will  be  shown  later  in  discussing  Incentives  and 
Welfare. 

Not  only  is  the  work  appreciated  by  the  manage- 
ment and  by  the  man  himself,  but  also  the  work  be- 
comes possible  of  appreciation  by  others.  The  form 
of  the  record  as  used  in  Scientific  Management,  and 
as  introduced  early  in  the  transitory  stage,  makes  it 
possible  for  many  beside  those  working  on  the  job, 
if  they  take  the  pains  to  consult  the  records,  which 
are  best  posted  in  a  conspicuous  place  on  the  work, 


42  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

to  know  and  appreciate  what  the  worker  Is  doing. 
This  can  be  best  illustrated,  perhaps,  by  various 
methods  of  recording  output  on  contracting  work, — 
out-of-door  work. 

The  flag  flown  by  the  successful  contestants  in  the 
athletic  contests,  showing  which  gang  or  which  in- 
dividual has  made  the  largest  output  during  the  day 
previous,  allows  everyone  who  passes  to  appreciate 
the  attainment  of  that  particular  worker,  or  that 
group  of  workers.  The  photographs  of  the  "  high 
priced  men,"  copies  of  which  may  be  given  to  the 
workers  themselves,  allow  the  worker  to  carry  home 
a  record  and  thus  impress  his  family  with  what  he 
has  done.  Too  often  the  family  is  unable  by  them- 
selves to  understand  the  value  of  the  worker's  work, 
or  to  appreciate  the  effect  of  his  home  life,  food,  and 
rest  conditions  upon  his  life  work,  and  this  entire 
strong  element  of  interest  of  the  worker's  family  in 
his  work  is  often  lost. 

Relation  of  Individual  Records  to  Scientific  Man- 
agement in  General. —  Any  study  of  Records  of  an 
individual's  work  again  makes  clear  that  no  one  topic 
of  Scientific  Management  can  be  properly  noted  with- 
out a  consideration  of  all  other  elements.  The  fact 
that  under  Scientific  Management  the  record  with 
which  the  man  most  surely  and  constantly  competes 
is  his  own,  as  provided  for  by  the  individual  instruc- 
tion card  and  the  individual  task;  the  fact  that  under 
Scientific  Management  the  man  need  be  in  no  fear  of 
losing  his  job  if  he  does  his  best;  the  fact  that  Scien- 
tific Management  is  founded  on  the  "  square  deal " ; 
—  all  of  these  facts  must  be  kept  constantly  in  mind 


INDIVIDUALITY  43 

when  considering  the  advantages  of  recording  in- 
dividual output,  for  they  all  have  a  strong  psycho- 
logical effect  on  the  man's  mind.  It  is  important  to 
remember  that  not  only  does  Scientific  Management 
provide  for  certain  directions  and  thoughts  entering 
the  man's  mind,  but  that  it  also  eliminates  other 
thoughts  v^hich  v^ould  surely  have  a  tendency  to  re- 
tard his  work.  The  result  is  output  far  exceeding 
what  is  usually  possible  under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment, because  drawbacks  are  removed  and  impetuses 
added. 

The  outcome  of  the  records,  and  their  related  ele- 
ments in  other  branches  of  Scientific  Management,  is 
to  arouse  interest.  Interest  arouses  abnormally  con- 
centrated attention,  and  this  in  turn  is  the  cause  of 
genius.  This  again  answers  the  argument  of  those 
who  claim  that  Scientific  Management  kills  individ- 
uality and  turns  the  worker  into  a  machine. 

Individual  Task  Under  Scientific  Management. — 
Individuality  is  also  taken  into  consideration  when 
preparing  the  task.  This  task  would  always  be  for 
an  individual,  even  in  the  case  of  the  gang  instruc- 
tion card.  It  usually  recognizes  individuality,  in 
that, — 

1.  It  is  prepared  for  one  individual  only,  when  pos- 
sible. 

2.  It  is  prepared  for  the  particular  individual  who 
is  to  do  it. 

The  working  time,  as  will  be  shown  later,  is  based 
upon  time  study  observations  on  a  standard  man,  but 
when  a  task  is  assigned  for  a  certain  individual,  that 
proportion  of  the  work  of  the  standard  or  first  class 


44  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

man  is  assigned  to  that  particular  given  man  who  is 
actually  to  do  it,  which  he  is  able  to  do.  It  is  funda- 
mental that  the  task  must  be  such  that  the  man  who 
is  actually  put  at  it,  when  he  obeys  orders  and  works 
steadily,  can  do  it ;  that  is,  the  task  must  be  achievable, 
and  achievable  without  such  effort  as  would  do  men- 
tal or  physical  injury  to  the  worker.  This  not  only 
gives  the  individual  the  proper  amount  of  work  to 
do,  recognizes  his  particular  capabilities  and  is  par- 
ticularly adapted  to  him,  but  it  also  eliminates  all 
dread  on  the  score  of  his  not  being  appreciated,  in 
that  the  worker  knows  that  if  he  achieves  or  exceeds 
his  task  he  will  not  only  receive  the  wage  for  it,  but 
will  continue  to  receive  that  wage,  or  more,  for  like 
achievement.  The  rate  is  not  cut.  Under  the 
"  three-rate  with  increased  rate  system,"  which  ex- 
perience has  shown  to  be  a  most  advanced  plan  for 
compensating  workmen,  the  worker  receives  one 
bonus  for  exactness  as  to  methods,  that  is,  he  re- 
ceives one  bonus  if  he  does  the  task  exactly  as  he  is 
instructed  to  do  it  as  to  methods ;  and  a  second  bonus, 
or  extra  bonus,  if  he  completes  his  task  in  the  al- 
lotted time.  This  not  only  assures  adequate  pay  to 
the  man  who  is  slow,  but  a  good  imitator,  but  also  to 
the  man  who,  perhaps,  is  not  such  a  good  imitator, 
and  must  put  attention  on  the  quality  rather  than  the 
quantity  of  his  performance. 

Individuality  Emphasized  by  Instruction  Card. — 
This  individual  task  is  embodied  in  an  individual  in- 
struction card. 

In  all  work  where  it  is  possible  to  do  so,  the  worker 
is  given  an  individual  instruction  card,  even  though 


INDIVIDUALITY  45 

his  operations  and  rest  periods  are  also  determined  by 
a  gang  instruction  card.  This  card  not  only  tells  the 
man  what  he  is  to  do,  how  he  can  best  do  it,  and  the 
time  that  it  is  supposed  to  take  him  to  do  it, —  but  it 
bears  also  the  signature  of  the  man  who  made  it. 
This  in  order  that  if  the  worker  cannot  fulfill  the  re- 
quirements of  the  card  he  may  lose  no  time  in  deter- 
mining who  is  to  give  him  the  necessary  instructions 
or  help  that  will  result  in  his  earning  his  large  wages. 
More  than  this,  he  must  call  for  help  from  his  as- 
signed teachers,  as  is  stated  in  large  type  on  a  typical 
Instruction  Card  as  follows :  "  When  instructions 
cannot  be  carried  out,  foreman  must  at  once  report  to 
man  who  signed  this  card." 

The  signature  of  the  man  who  made  the  card  not 
only  develops  his  sense  of  individuality  and  responsi- 
bility, but  helps  create  a  feeling  of  inter-responsibility 
between  the  workers  in  various  parts  of  the  organiza- 
tion. 

The  Gang  Instruction  Card. —  A  gang  instruction 
card  is  used  for  such  work  only  as  must  be  done  by  a 
group  of  men  all  engaged  at  the  work  at  once,  or  who 
are  working  at  a  dependent  sequence  of  operations, 
or  both.  This  card  contains  but  those  portions  of 
the  instructions  for  each  man  which  refer  to  those 
elements  which  must  be  completed  before  a  following 
element,  to  be  done  by  the  next  man  in  the  sequence, 
can  be  completed.  Because  of  the  nature  of  the  work, 
the  gang  instruction  card  must  be  put  in  the  hands  of 
a  leader,  or  foreman,  whether  or  not  it  is  also  in  the 
hands  of  each  of  the  individuals.  The  amount  of 
work  which  can  be  required  as  a  set  task  for  each  in- 


46  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

dividual  member  of  the  gang,  the  allowance  for  rest 
for  overcoming  fatigue,  the  time  that  the  rest  periods 
must  occur,  and  the  proper  pay,  are  fully  stated  on  the 
Individual  Instruction  Cards. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Foster  Individuality. —  As 
v^ill  be  shown  at  length  in  the  Chapter  on  Teaching, 
under  Scientific  Management  teaching  is  not  only 
general,  by  "  Systems,"  "  Standing  Orders,"  or 
"  Standard  Practice,"  but  also  specific.  Specialized 
teachers,  called,  unfortunately  for  the  emphasis  de- 
sired to  be  put  on  teaching,  "  functional  foremen," 
help  the  individual  worker  to  overcome  his  peculiar 
difficulties. 

This  teaching  not  only  allows  every  worker  to  sup- 
plement his  deficiencies  of  disposition  or  experience, 
but  the  teachers'  places  give  opportunities  for  those 
who  have  a  talent  for  imparting  knowledge  to  utilize 
and  develop  it. 

Individual  Incentive  and  Welfare. —  Finally,  in- 
dividual incentive  and  individual  welfare  are  not  only 
both  present,  but  interdependent.  Desire  for  indi- 
vidual success,  which  might  lead  a  worker  to  respond 
to  the  incentive  till  he  held  back  perhaps  the  work  of 
others,  is  held  in  balance  by  interdependence  of  bo- 
nuses. This  will  be  explained  in  full  in  the  Chapters 
on  Incentives  and  Welfare. 

SUMMARY 

Result  of  Idea  of  Individuality  upon  Work. —  To 

recapitulate ;  —  Under  Traditional  Management,  be- 
cause of  its  frequent  neglect  of  the  idea  of  in- 
dividuality, work  is  often  unsystematized,   and  high 


INDIVIDUALITY  47 

output  is  usually  the  result  of  "  speeding  up  "  only, 
with  constant  danger  of  a  falling  off  in  quality  over- 
balancing men  and  injury  to  men  and  machinery. 

Under  Transitory  Management,  as  outputs  are 
separated,  separately  recorded,  and  as  the  idea  of 
Individuality  is  embodied  in  selecting  men,  setting 
tasks,  the  instruction  cards,  periods  of  rest,  teaching, 
incentives  and  welfare,  output  increases  without  un- 
due pressure  on  the  worker. 

Under  Scientific  Management  —  with  various  ele- 
ments which  embody  individuality  fully  developed, 
output  increases,  to  the  welfare  of  worker,  manager, 
employer  and  consumer  and  with  no  falling  off  in 
quality. 

Effect  Upon  the  Worker. —  The  question  of  the 
effect  upon  the  worker  of  emphasis  laid  upon  in- 
dividuality, can  perhaps  best  be  answered  by  asking 
and  answering  the  following  questions :  — 

1.  When,  where,  how,  and  how  much  is  individ- 
uality considered? 

2.  What  consideration  is  given  to  the  relation  of 
the  mind  to  the  body  of  the  individual? 

3.  What  is  the  relative  emphasis  on  consideration 
of  individual  and  class  ? 

4.  In  how  far  is  the  individual  the  unit? 

5.  What  consideration  is  given  to  idiosyncrasies? 

6.  What  is  the  effect  toward  causing  or  bringing 
about  development,  that  is,  broadening,  deepening 
and  making  the  individual  more  progressive? 

Extent  of  Consideration  of  Individuality. —  i .  Un- 
der Traditional  Management  consideration  of  individ- 
uality is  seldom  present,  but  those  best  forms  of  Tra- 


48  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ditional  Management  that  are  successful  are  so  be- 
cause it  is  present.  This  is  not  usually  recognized, 
but  investigation  shows  that  the  successful  manager, 
or  foreman,  or  boss,  or  superintendent  succeeds  either 
because  of  his  own  individuality  or  because  he  brings 
out  to  good  advantage  the  individual  possibilities  of 
his  men.  The  most  successful  workers  under  Tradi- 
tional Management  are  those  who  are  allowed  to  be 
individuals  and  to  follow  out  their  individual  bents  of 
greatest  efficiency,  instead  of  being  crowded  down 
to  become  mere  members  of  gangs,  with  no  chance 
to  think,  to  do,  or  to  be  anything  but  parts  of  the 
gang. 

Under  Transitory  Management,  and  most  fully 
under  Scientific  Management,  the  spirit  of  individual- 
ity, far  from  being  crowded  out,  is  a  basic  principle, 
and  everything  possible  is  done  to  encourage  the  de- 
sire to  be  a  personality. 

Relation  of  Mind  to  Body. —  Under  Traditional 
Management,  where  men  worked  in  the  same  employ 
for  a  long  time,  much  consideration  was  given  to  the 
relation  of  the  mind  to  the  body.  It  was  realized 
that  men  must  not  be  speeded  up  beyond  what  they 
could  do  healthfully;  they  must  have  good  sleeping 
quarters  and  good,  savory  and  appetizing  food  to  eat 
and  not  be  fatigued  unnecessarily,  if  they  were  to 
become  successful  workers.  More  than  this,  philan- 
thropic employers  often  attempted  to  supply  many 
kinds  of  comfort  and  amusement. 

Under  Transitory  Management  the  physical  and 
mental  welfare  are  provided  for  more  systematically. 

Under  Scientific  Management  consideration  of  the 


INDIVIDUALITY  49 

mind  and  body  of  the  workman,  and  his  health,  and 
all  that  that  includes,  is  a  subject  for  scientific  study 
and  for  scientific  administration.  As  shown  later, 
it  eliminates  all  discussion  and  troubles  of  so-called 
"  welfare  work,"  because  the  interests  of  the  employer 
and  the  worker  become  identical  and  everything  that 
is  done  becomes  the  concern  of  both. 

Scientific  Management  realizes  that  the  condition 
of  the  body  effects  every  possible  mental  process. 
It  is  one  of  the  great  advantages  of  a  study  of  the 
psychology  of  management  that  the  subject  absolutely 
demands  from  the  start,  and  insists  in  every  stage  of 
the  work,  on  this  relationship  of  the  body  to  the 
mind,  and  of  the  surroundings,  equipment,  etc.,  of  the 
worker  to  his  work. 

It  is  almost  impossible,  in  management,  to  sepa- 
rate the  subject  of  the  worker  from  that  of  his  work, 
or  to  think  of  the  worker  as  not  working  except  in 
such  a  sense  as  "  ceasing-from-work,"  "  about-to- 
work,"  "  resting  to  overcome  fatigue  of  work,"  or 
"  resting  during  periods  of  unavoidable  delays,"  The 
relation  of  the  worker  to  his  work  is  constantly  in 
the  mind  of  the  manager.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
not  only  does  management  owe  much  to  psychology, 
but  that  psychology,  as  applied  to  any  line  of  study, 
will,  ultimately,  be  recognized  as  owing  much  to  the 
science  of  management. 

Relative  Emphasis  on  Individual  and  Class. — 
Under  Traditional  Management  the  gang,  or  the  class, 
usually  receives  the  chief  emphasis.  If  the  individual 
developed,  as  he  undoubtedly  did,  in  many  kinds  of 
mechanical  work,   especially  in  small  organizations, 


50     THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

it  was  more  or  less  because  it  was  not  possible  for  the 
managers  to  organize  the  various  individuals  into 
classes  or  gangs.  In  the  transitory  stage  the  empha- 
sis is  shifting.  Under  Scientific  Management  the  em- 
phasis is  most  decidedly  and  emphatically  upon  the 
individual  as  the  unit  to  be  managed,  as  has  been 
shown. 

Individual  as  the  Unit. —  Under  Traditional  Man- 
agement the  individual  was  seldom  the  unit.  Under 
Transitory  Management  the  individual  is  the  unit,  but 
there  is  not  much  emphasis  in  the  early  stages  placed 
upon  his  peculiarities  and  personalities.  Under  Scien- 
tific Management  the  unit  is  always  the  individual, 
and  the  utilizing  and  strengthening  of  his  personal 
traits,  special  ability  and  skill  is  a  dominating  feature. 

Emphasis  on  Idiosyncrasies. —  Under  Traditional 
Management  there  is  either  no  consideration  given  to 
idiosyncrasies,  or  too  wide  a  latitude  is  allowed.  In 
cases  where  no  consideration  is  given,  there  is  often 
either  a  pride  in  the  managers  in  "  treating  all  men 
ahke,"  though  they  might  respond  better  to  different 
handling,  or  else  the  individual  is  undirected  and  his 
personality  manifests  itself  in  all  sorts  of  unguided 
directions,  many  of  which  must  necessarily  be  waste- 
ful, unproductive,  or  incomplete  in  development. 
Under  Scientific  Management,  functionalization,  as 
will  be  shown,  provides  for  the  utilization  of  all 
idiosyncrasies  and  efificient  deviations  from  class,  and 
promotion  is  so  planned  that  a  man  may  develop  along 
the  line  of  his  chief  ability.  Thus  initiative  is  en- 
couraged and  developed  constantly. 

Development  of  Individuality. —  The  development 


INDIVIDUALITY  51 

of  individuality  is  more  sure  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment than  it  is  under  either  of  the  other  two  forms  of 
management,  (a)  because  this  development  is  recog- 
nized to  be  a  benefit  to  the  worker  and  to  the  em- 
ployer and  (b)  because  this  development  as  a  part 
of  a  definite  plan  is  provided  for  and  perfected  scien- 
tifically. 


CHAPTER  III 

FUNCTIONALIZATION 

Definition  o£  Functionalization. —  A  function,  says 
the  Century  Dictionary,  is  —  "  The  fulfilment  or  dis- 
charge of  a  set  duty  or  requirement,  exercise  of  a 
faculty  or  oflfice,  or  power  of  acting,  faculty, —  that 
power  of  acting  in  a  specific  way  which  appertains 
to  a  thing  by  virtue  of  its  special  constitution;  that 
mode  of  action  or  operation  which  is  proper  to  any 
organ,  faculty,  office  structure,  etc.  (This  is  the 
most  usual  signification  of  the  term)." 

"  Functionalization  "  is  not  given  in  the  Century 
Dictionary.  The  nearest  to  it  to  be  found  there  is 
"  Functionality,"  which  is  defined  as  — "  The  state  of 
having  or  being  a  function."  Functionalization  as 
here  used  means — ^the  state  of  being  divided  into 
functions,  or  being  functionalized,  "  Functionalize  " 
is  given  in  the  Century  Dictionary,  defined  as  "  to 
assign  some  office  or  function  to  " —  the  note  being 
made  that  it  is  rare.  "  Functionalize  "  may  not  be 
the  best  word  that  could  be  used  in  this  connection, 
but  there  seems  to  be  no  other  word  in  the  English 
language  which  contains  its  full  meaning,  therefore 
we  will  use  the  word  here  in  the  sense  of  assigning 
work  according  to  capacity  or  faculty.  A  faculty 
means  — "  A   specific   power,   mental   or  physical ;   a 

52 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  S3 

Special  capacity  for  any  particular  kind  of  action  or 
affection;  natural  capability." 

Psychological  Use  of  Functionalization. —  The  word 
"  Function  "  is  in  constant  use  by  modern  psycholo- 
gists, especially  by  those  who  believe  that  — "  Psy- 
chology is  the  science  of  the  self  in  relation  to  environ- 
ment," ^  or  that  "  Psychology  is  a  scientific  account 
of  our  mental  processes."  ^  Sully  defines  a  function 
as  "  a  psychologically  simple  process,"  ^  and  com- 
pares its  elementariness  to  a  muscular  contraction  as 
an  element  of  a  step  in  walking. 

In  investigating  the  principle  of  Functionalization 
as  embodied  in  various  forms  of  Management,  we 
must  note  that,  while  Management  can,  and  does 
under  Scientific  Management,  attempt  to  functionalize 
work  as  far  as  possible,  it  will  be  impossible  to  come 
to  ultimate  results  until  a  psychological  study  of  the 
requirement  of  the  work  from  the  worker,  and  results 
of  the  work  on  the  worker  is  made.* 

Functionalization  in  Management. — "  Functional 
Management  "  consists,  to  quote  Dr.  Taylor,  "  in  so 
directing  the  work  of  management  that  each  man 
from  the  assistant  superintendent  down  shall  have  as 
few  functions  as  possible  to  perform.  If  practicable, 
the  work  of  each  man  in  the  management  should  be 
confined  to  the  performance  of  a  single  leading  func- 
tion." 5 

1  Mary  Whiton  Calkins,  A  First  Book  in  Psychology,  p.  273. 

2  Sully,  The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology,  p.  i. 
^  Ibid.,  p.  54. 

*  Hugo  Miinsterberg,  American  Problems,  p.  35. 
^  Gillette  and  Dana,  Cost  Keeping  and  Management  Engineering, 
p.  I. 


54  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

A  study  of  functionalization  as  applied  to  manage- 
ment must  answer  the  following  questions: 

1.  How  is  the  work  divided? 

2.  How  are  the  workers  assigned  to  the  work? 

3.  What  are  the  results  to  the  work? 

4.  What  are  the  results  to  the  worker? 
Traditional  Management  Seldom  Functionalizes. — 

Under  Traditional  Management  the  principle  of  Func- 
tionalization was  seldom  applied  or  understood. 
Even  when  the  manager  tried  to  separate  planning 
from  performing,  or  so  to  divide  the  work  that  each 
worker  could  utilize  his  special  ability,  there  were  no 
permanently  beneficial  results,  because  there  was  no 
standard  method  of  division. 

The  Work  of  the  Foreman  Not  Properly  Divided. — 
The  work  of  a  foreman  was  not  divided,  but  the  well 
rounded  man,  as  Dr.  Taylor  says,^  was  supposed  to 
have 

1.  Brain 

2.  Education 

3.  Special  or  technical  knowledge,  manual  dexterity 
or  strength 

4.  Tact 

5.  Energy 

6.  Grit 

7.  Honesty 

8.  Judgment,  or  common  sense 

9.  Good  health. 

Dr.  Taylor  says  — "  Plenty  of  men  who  possess  only 

three  of  the  above  qualities  can  be  hired  at  any  time 

for  laborer's  wages.     Add  four  of  these  qualities  to- 

^F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  221.    Harper  Ed.,  p.  96. 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  55 

gether,  and  you  get  a  higher  priced  man.  The  man 
combining  five  of  these  qualities  begins  to  be  hard  to 
find,  and  those  with  6,  7  and  8  are  almost  impossible 
to  get." 

Yet,  under  Traditional  Management  these  general 
qualities  and  many  points  of  specific  training  were 
demanded  of  the  foreman.  Dr.  Taylor  has  enumer- 
ated the  qualifications  or  the  duties  of  a  gang  boss  in 
charge  of  lathes  or  planers.'  Careful  reading  of  this 
enumeration  will  show  most  plainly  that  the  demands 
made  were  almost  impossible  of  fulfillment.^ 

Another  list  which  is  interesting  is  found  in  "  Cost 
Reducing  System,"  a  long  list  of  the  duties  of  the 
Ideal  Superintendent  or  foreman  in  construction 
work,® 

QUALIFICATIONS  AND  DUTIES  OF  FIRST 
CLASS  FOREMAN 

A  first  class  foreman  must  have : 
bodily  strength 
brains 

common  sense 
education 
energy 
good  health 
good  judgment 
grit 
manual  dexterity 

''  F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  221-231.    Harper  Ed., 
pp.  96-98. 
8  Compare  H.  L.  Gantt,  No.  1002,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  para.  9. 
8  Compare  H.  P.  Gillette,  Cost  Analysis  Engineering,  pp.  1-2. 


56  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

special  knowledge 

tact 

technical  knowledge. 
He  must  be : 

able  to  concentrate  his  mind  upon  small  things 

able  to  read  drawings  readily 

able  to  visualize  the  work  at  every  stage  of  its 
progress,  and  even  before  it  begins 

a  master  of  detail 

honest 

master  of  at  least  one  trade. 
His  duties  consist  of: 

considering  broad  policies. 

considering  new  applicants  for  important  posi- 
tions. 

considering  the   character  and  fitness  of  the 
men. 

determining  a  proper  day's  work. 

determining  costs. 

determining  the  method  of  compensation, 

determining  the  sequence  of  events  for  the  best 
results. 

disciplining  the  men. 

dividing  the  men  into  gangs  for  speed  contests. 

fixing  piece  and  day  rates. 

getting  rid  of  inferior  men. 

handling  relations  with  the  unions. 

hiring  good  men. 

installing  such  methods  and  devices  as  will  de- 
tect dishonesty. 

instructing  the  workman. 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  57 

keeping  the  time  and  disciplining  those  who 

are  late  or  absent, 
laying  out  work, 
looking  ahead  to  see  that  there  are  men  enough 

for  future  work, 
looking   ahead    to    see    that    there   is    enough 

future  work  for  the  men. 
making  profits. 

measuring  each  man's  effort  fairly, 
obtaining  good  results  in  quality, 
paying  the  men  on  days  when  they  are  dis- 
charged, 
paying  the  men  on  pay  day. 
preventing  soldiering, 
readjusting  wages, 
retaining  good  men. 
seeing  that  all  men  are  honest, 
seeing  that   men   are   shifted   promptly  when 

breakdowns  occur, 
seeing  that  repairs  are  made  promptly  before 

breakdowns  occur, 
seeing  that  repairs  are  made  promptly  after 

breakdowns  occur, 
seeing  that  the  most  suitable  man  is  allotted  to 

each  part  of  the  work, 
seeing  that  the  work  is  not  slighted, 
setting  piece  work  prices, 
setting  rates, 
setting  tasks, 
supervising  timekeeping, 
teaching  the  apprentices. 


58     THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

teaching  the  improvers, 
teaching  the  learners. 
In  studying  these  lists  we  note  — 

1.  That  the  position  will  be  best  filled  by  a  very 
high  and  rare  type  of  man. 

2.  That  the  man  is  forced  to  use  every  atom  of  all 
of  his  powers  and  at  the  same  time  to  waste  his 
energies  in  doing  much  unimportant  pay  reducing 
routine  work,  some  of  which  could  be  done  by  clerks. 

3.  That  in  many  cases  the  work  assigned  for  him 
to  do  calls  for  qualifications  which  are  diametrically 
opposed  to  each  other. 

4.  That  psychology  tells  us  that  a  man  fitted  to 
perform  some  of  these  duties  would  probably  be  men- 
tally ill  fitted  for  performing  others  in  the  best  pos- 
sible way  that  they  could  be  performed. 

Work  Not  Well  Done. —  Not  only  does  the  fore- 
man under  Traditional  Management  do  a  great  deal 
of  work  which  can  be  done  by  cheaper  men,  but  he 
also  wastes  his  time  on  clerical  work  in  which  he  is 
not  a  specialist,  and,  therefore,  which  he  does  not  do 
as  well  as  the  work  can  be  done  by  a  cheaper  man, 
and  this  takes  more  of  his  time  than  he  ought  to  de- 
vote to  it.  The  result  is  that  the  work  is  not  done  as 
well  as  it  can  and  should  be  done. 

A  most  perfect  illustration  of  a  common  form  of 
Traditional  Management  is  the  old  story  of  the  fore- 
man, who,  in  making  his  rounds  of  the  various  parts 
of  the  work,  comes  to  the  deep  hole  being  excavated 
for  a  foundation  pier  and  says  hurriedly  — "  How 
many  of  yez  is  there  in  the  hole?  "  "  Seven."  "  The 
half  of  yez  come  up." 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  59 

The  theoretical  defects  of  the  old  type  of  manage- 
ment often  seen  before  the  advent  of  the  trained  en- 
gineer on  the  work  include :  — 

1.  lack  of  planning  ahead. 

2.  an  overworked  foreman. 

3.  no  functionalizing  of  the  work. 

4.  no  standards  of  individual  efficiency. 

5.  unmeasured  individual  outputs. 

6.  no  standard  methods. 

7.  no  attempt  at  teaching. 

8.  inaccurate  directions. 

9.  lack  of  athletic  contests. 

10.  no  high  pay  for  extra  efficiency. 

11.  poor  investigation  of  workers'  special  capabili- 
ties. 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  under  unfunctionalized  man- 
agement the  foreman  has  far  more  to  do  than  he  can 
expect  to  do  well,  the  average  foreman  thinks  that 
he  belongs  to  a  class  above  his  position.  This  is 
partly  because  the  position  is  so  unstandardized  that 
it  arouses  a  sense  of  unrest,  and  partly  because  he 
has  to  spend  much  of  his  time  at  low  priced  func- 
tions. 

'  Under  the  feeling  of  enmity,  or  at  least,  of  opposi- 
tion, which  often  exists,  openly  or  secretly,  between 
the  average  Traditional  Management  and  men,  the 
foreman  must  ally  himself  with  one  side  or  the  other. 
If  he  joins  with  the  men,  he  must  countenance  the 
soldiering,  which  they  find  necessary  in  order  to  main- 
tain their  rates  of  wages.  Thus  the  output  of  the 
shop  will  seldom  increase  and  his  chance  for  apprecia- 
tion and  promotion  by  the  management  will  probably 


6o  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

be  slight  and  slow.  His  position  as  boss,  combined 
with  that  of  ally  of  the  men,  is  awkward. 

If  he  allies  himself  to  the  management,  he  must 
usually  become  a  driver  of  the  men,  if  he  wishes  to 
increase  output.  This  condition  will  never  be  agree- 
able to  him  unless  he  has  an  oversupply  of  brute 
instincts. 

The  Workers  Not  Best  Utilized. —  Under  the  best 
types  of  Traditional  Management  we  do  find  more  or 
less  spasmodic  attempts  at  the  functionalization  of 
the  worker.  When  there  was  any  particular  kind  of 
work  to  be  done,  the  worker  who  seemed  to  the  man- 
ager to  be  the  best  fitted,  was  set  at  that  kind  of  work. 
For  example  —  if  there  was  a  particular!}'-  heavy  piece 
of  work  he  might  say  — "  Let  A  do  it  because  he  is 
strong."  If  there  was  a  particularly  fine  piece  of 
work  to  be  done  he  might  say  — "Let  B  do  it  because 
he  is  specially  skilled."  If  there  was  a  piece  of  work 
to  be  done  which  required  originality,  he  might  say  — 
"  Let  C  do  it  for  the  reason  that  he  is  inventive  and 
resourceful  " ;  but,  in  most  cases,  when  the  particular 
job  on  hand  was  finished,  the  worker  selected  to  do  it 
returned  to  other  classes  of  work,  and  such  special 
fitness  or  capability  as  he  had,  was  seldom  sytematic- 
ally  utilized,  or  automatically  assigned  to  his  special 
function, neither  was  such  experience  as  he  had  gained 
systematically  conserved.  Moreover,  no  such  study 
of  the  work  to  be  done  had  been  made  as  would  prove 
that  the  assignment  of  that  particular  worker  to  the 
work  was  right.  The  psychology  of  this  was  entirely 
wrong, —  not  only  had  no  such  study  of  the  general 
and   particular   characteristics,   traits,    faculties,   and 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  61 

talents  of  the  man  been  made  as  would  prove  that  he 
was  the  right  man  to  be  assigned,  but  the  mere  fact 
that  he  possessed  one  quality  necessary  for  the  work, 
if  he  really  did  possess  it,  was  no  sign  that  the  other 
qualities  which  he  possessed  might  not  make  him  the 
wrong  man  to  be  chosen.  Even  if  the  man  did  happen 
to  be  assigned  to  work  for  which  he  was  particularly 
suited,  unless  provision  were  made  to  keep  him  at 
such  work  only,  to  keep  him  well  supplied  with  work, 
to  allow  time  for  rest,  and  to  provide  proper  pay,  he 
could  not  utilize  his  capabilities  to  the  fullest  extent. 

Transitory  Management  Functionalizes. —  Under 
Transitory  Management,  management  becomes  grad- 
ually more  and  more  functionalized.  With  separated 
outputs  and  separate  records,  the  worker's  capabilities 
become  apparent,  and  he  can  be  assigned  to  the  stand- 
ardized positions  which  gradually  evolve.  Every 
recognition  of  individuality  carries  with  it  a  corre- 
sponding functionalization  of  men  and  work. 

Functionalization  a  Fundamental  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement.—  With  Scientific  Management  comes  the 
realization  that  with  close  study  and  with  functional- 
ization only,  can  that  provision  and  assignment 
of  the  work  which  is  best  for  both  work  and  worker 
be  obtained.  The  principle  is  applied  to  every  part  of 
management,  and  results  in 

1.  separating  the  planning  from  the  performing. 

2.  functionalizing  foremen. 

3.  functionalizing  workers. 

4.  assigning  competent  workers  to  fitting  work. 
Separating     the     Planning     from     the     Perform- 
ing.—  The  emphasis  on  separating  the  planning  from 


62  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

the  performing  in  Scientific  Management  cannot  be 
over-estimated.  It  is  a  part  of  Dr.  Taylor's  fourth 
principle  of  Scientific  Management,  "  Almost  equal 
division  of  the  work  and  the  responsibility  between 
the  management  and  the  workmen."  ^^  The  great- 
est outputs  can  be  achieved  to  the  greatest  benefit 
to  managers  and  men  when  the  work  is  divided,  the 
management  undertaking  that  part  of  the  work  that 
it  is  best  fitted  to  do,  the  workmen  performing  that 
part  which  they  are  best  fitted  to  do. 

The  Work  of  the  Planning  Department. —  It  has 
been  determined  by  actual  experience  that  the  line  of 
division  most  agreeable  to  the  managers  and  the 
workmen  and  most  productive  of  cooperation  by 
both,  as  well  as  most  efficient  in  producing  low  costs, 
is  that  which  separates  the  planning  from  the  per- 
forming. Under  Scientific  Management  the  Plan- 
ning Department  relieves  the  man  of  determin- 
ing— 

1.  what  work  is  to  be  done. 

2.  sequence  in  which  it  is  to  be  done. 

3.  method  by  which  it  shall  be  done. 

4.  where  it  shall  be  done. 

5.  which  men  shall  do  it. 

6.  time  that  it  shall  take. 

7.  exact  quality  of  product. 

8.  quantity  of  additional  pay  that  shall  be  given 
for  doing  it. 

Work  of  the  Workers. —  The  men  are  simply  given 
standard  tasks  to  do,  with  teachers  to  help  them,  and 
a  standard  wage  according  to  performance  as  a  re- 
10  F.  W.  Taylor,  Principles  of  Scientific  Management,  p.  37. 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  63 

ward.     There    are    but    three    things    expected    of 
them :  — 

1.  cooperation  with  the  management  in  obtaining 
the  prescribed  work,  method  and  quality. 

2.  the  exercise  of  their  ingenuity  in  making  im- 
provements after  they  have  learned  the  standard 
prescribed  practice. 

3.  the  fitting  of  themselves  for  higher  pay  and  pro- 
motion. 

Functionalized  Foremanship. —  The  work  that,  un- 
der Scientific  Management,  is  usually  done  by  one 
man,  the  Foreman,  is  subdivided  into  eight  or  more 
functions.  These  functions  are  assigned  to  the  fol- 
lowing functional  foremen :  ^^ 

Planning  Department 

1.  Order  of  work  and  route  man 

2.  Instruction  card  man 

3.  Cost  and  time  clerk 

4.  Disciplinarian 
Performing  Department 

5.  Gang  boss 

6.  Speed  boss 

7.  Repair  boss 

8.  Inspector 

Each  of  the  above  functions  may  be  in  charge  of  a 
separate  man,  or  one  man  may  be  in  charge  of  several 
functions,  or  several  men  may  do  the  work  of  one 
function;  the  work  being  divided  between  them  in 
some  cases  by  further  functionalizing  it, —  and  in 
others  by  separating  it  into  similar  parts.     Which  of 

1^  F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  245.  Harper  Ed.,  p. 
104. 


64  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

these  conditions  is  most  effective  depends  on  the  size 
of  the  job,  or  the  nature  of  the  job  to  be  done.  The 
important  question  is,  not  the  number  of  men  doing 
the  planning,  but  the  fact  that  every  foreman,  so  far 
as  is  possible,  is  assigned  to  the  special  kind  of  work 
that  he  is  best  fitted  to  do  with  the  greatest  elimina- 
tion of  unnecessary  waste. 

Changes  in  the  Functions  of  the  Foreman. —  A 
Foreman,  under  Scientific  Management,  must  have 
three  qualifications.     He  must  be 

1.  a  specialist  at  the  work  that  he  is  to  do. 

2.  a  good  observer,  able  to  note  minute  variations 
of  method,  work,  and  efficiency. 

3.  a  good  teacher. 

A  comparison  of  these  qualifications  with  those  of 
the  foreman  under  Traditional  Management,  will 
show  as  important  changes, — 

1.  the  particular  place  in  the  field  of  knowledge 
in  which  the  foreman  must  specialize. 

2.  the  change  in  the  type  of  criticism  expected 
from  the  foreman. 

3.  the  far  greater  emphasis  placed  on  duties  as  a 
teacher. 

Importance  of  the  Teaching  Feature  in  Functional 
Foremanship. —  The  teaching  feature  of  management, 
—  the  most  important  feature  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement,—  will  be  discussed  in  the  Chapter  on  Teach- 
ing. Only  so  much  is  included  here  as  shows  its  der- 
ivation from  the  principle  of  functionalization,  and  its 
underlying  importance. 

Functionalization  means  specialization.  This  re- 
sults in  cooperation  between  foremen,  between  fore- 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  65 

men  and  workers,  and  between  workers.  By  "  co- 
operate "  is  here  meant  not  only  "  to  work  together," 
but  also  "  to  work  together  to  promote  the  object." 
This  cooperation  persists  not  only  because  it  is  de- 
manded by  the  work,  but  also  because  it  is  insured 
by  the  inter-dependent  bonuses. 

Functionalization  under  Scientific  Management 
separates  planning  from  performing.  This  means 
that  the  specialists  who  plan  must  teach  the  specialist 
who  performs,  this  being  the  way  in  which  they  co- 
operate to  the  greatest  personal  advantage  to  all. 

Basis  of  Division  into  Functions. —  Under  Scien- 
tific Management  divisions  are  made  on  the  basis  of 
underlying  ideas.  Functions  are  not  classified  as  they 
are  embodied  in  particular  men,  but  men  are  classified 
as  they  embody  particular  functions.  This  allows  of 
standardization,  through  which  alone  can  progress 
and  evolution  come  quickest.  It  is  comparatively 
easy  and  simple  to  standardize  a  function.  Being  a 
"  set  duty,"  it  can  be  fixed,  studied  and  simplified.  It 
is  extremely  difficult  and  complex  to  standardize  an 
individual.  This  standardizing  of  the  function,  how- 
ever, in  no  wise  stunts  individuality.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  gives  each  individual  a  chance  to  utilize  his 
particular  faculty  for  obtaining  the  greatest  efficiency, 
pleasure  and  profit.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  the 
case  of  specialization  in  baseball,  for  excellence  as  a 
pitcher  does  not  stunt  the  player  as  a  catcher. 

Functions  may  be  subdivided  as  far  as  the  nature 
of  the  work  demands.  Note  here,  again,  that  it  is  the 
relative  complexity  or  simplicity  of  the  nature  of  the 
work  that  is  to  be  done  that  determines  the  degree 


66  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  its  functionalization,  not  the  number  of  men  em- 
ployed at  the  work. 

Note,  also,  that  with  every  subdivision  of  functions 
comes  greater  opportunity  for  specialization,  hence 
for  individual  development. 

Place  of  Operation  of  the  Functions. —  Four  func- 
tions of  the  eight  find  their  place  in  the  planning  de- 
partment. The  other  four  are  out  on  the  work. 
That  is  to  say, —  the  men  who  represent  four  func- 
tions work  almost  entirely  in  the  planning  room, 
while  the  men  who  represent  the  other  four  functions 
work  mostly  among  the  workers.  This  division  is, 
however,  largely  a  matter  of  convenience.  Three  of 
the  first  four  groups  of  men  communicate  with  the 
workers  mostly  in  writing  and  are  seldom  engaged  as 
observers,  except  in  obtaining  data  for  the  creation  of 
standards,  while  the  fourth  is  often  in  the  planning 
room.  The  last  four  usually  communicate  with  the 
men  orally,  and  must  observe  and  teach  the  worker 
constantly. 

In  the  descriptions  that  follow,  each  function  is 
represented  as  embodied  in  one  man,  this  aiding  sim- 
plicity and  clearness  in  description. 

The  Order  of  Work  and  Route  Clerk.—  The  Order 
of  Work  and  Route  Clerk  lays  out  the  exact  path  of 
each  piece  of  work,  and  determines  the  sequence  of 
events  of  moving  and  a  general  outline  of  perform- 
ance.^^ With  the  requirements  of  the  work  in  mind, 
the  most  efHcient  day's  work  for  each  worker  is  de- 
termined.    The  paths  and  sequences  of  transportation 

^2 For  excellent  example  of   special   routing  see:   Charles   Day, 
Industrial  Plants,  chap.  VII. 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  67 

are  outlined  by  means  of  route  charts  and  route  sheets 
showing  graphical  and  detailed  directions,  which  are 
the  means  by  which  the  foremen  of  the  other  func- 
tions are  enabled  to  cooperate  with  other  foremen  and 
with  the  workers. 

The  work  of  this  function  requires  a  practical  man, 
of  the  successful  foreman  type,  experienced  in  the 
class  of  work  to  be  executed,  who  is  also  familiar  with 
the  theories  of  Scientific  Management  in  general,  and 
the  work  of  the  other  foremen  in  particular,  and  who 
has  the  faculty  of  visualization  and  well  developed 
constructive  imagination.  He  must  also  have  at  his 
command  in  systematic  form,  and  available  for  im- 
mediate use,  records  of  previous  experience. 

The  Instruction  Card  Clerk. —  The  Instruction  Card 
Clerk  prepares  written  directions  for  the  workers 
as  to  what  methods  should  be  used  in  doing  the  work, 
the  sequence  of  performance  of  the  elements  of  the 
method,  the  speeds  and  action  of  the  accompanying 
machinery,  the  time  that  each  element  should  take  for 
its  performance,  the  time  allowed  for  rest  for  over- 
coming fatigue  caused  by  its  performance,  and  the 
total  elapsed  time  allowed  for  performing  all  of  the 
work  on  the  instruction  card  in  order  to  obtain  the 
unusually  high  additional  wages  as  a  reward  for  his 
skill  and  cooperation. 

The  work  of  this  function  requires  the  best  avail- 
able (but  not  necessarily  the  fastest),  practical  ex- 
perienced man  in  the  trade  described,  who  also  has 
had  sufficient  experience  in  motion  study  and  time 
Study  to  enable  him  to  write  down  the  best  known 
method    for    doing    the    work    described,    and    also 


68  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

prophesying  the  correct  time  that  the  work  and  rest 
from  its  resulting  fatigue  will  take.  He  must  sup- 
plement the  instruction  card  with  such  sketches, 
drawings  and  photographs  as  will  best  assist  the 
worker  to  visualize  his  work  before  and  during  its 
performance. 

Function  of  Time  and  Cost  Clerk. —  The  work  done 
by  the  Time  and  Cost  Clerk  calls  for  accuracy  and 
a  love  of  statistical  detail.  It  will  help  him  if  he 
knows  the  trades  with  which  he  is  cooperating,  but 
such  knowledge  is  not  absolutely  essential.  He  will 
be  promoted  fastest  who  has  a  knowledge  of  the 
theory  of  management,  coupled  with  the  theory  and 
practice  of  statistics  and  accountancy,  for  the  true 
costs  must  include  knowledge  of  costs  of  materials, 
and  the  distribution  of  the  overhead  burden  .of  run- 
ning expenses  and  selling. 

Function  of  the  Disciplinarian. —  The  function  of 
the  Disciplinarian  must  be  discussed  at  length,  both 
because  of  the  psychological  effect  upon  the  men  of 
the  manner  of  the  discipline  and  of  the  disciplinarian, 
and  because  of  the  fact  that  the  disciplinarian  is  the 
functional  foreman  of  the  four  in  the  planning  depart- 
ment who  comes  in  most  personal  contact  with  the 
workers,  as  well  as  all  of  the  other  foremen,  and  the 
Superintendent. 

It  is  important  to  note,  in  the  discussion  that  is  to 
follow,  not  only  how  disciplining  is  transformed  as 
management  develops  progressively,  but  also  that  the 
intimate  acquaintance  of  discipliner  with  disciplined 
is  not  done  away  with,  but  rather  supplemented  by 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  69 

the  standardizing  which  is  the  outcome  of  Scientific 
Management. 

The  defects  of  methods  of  disciplining  under  Tra- 
ditional Management  are  remedied,  but  here,  as 
always,  Scientific  Management  retains  and  develops 
that  which  is  good.  This  because  the  good  in  the 
older  forms  conformed,  unconsciously,  to  the  under- 
lying laws. 

Defects  of  Disciplining  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment.—  Under  Traditional  Management,  the  dis- 
ciplining is  done  by  the  foreman;  that  is,  the  punish- 
ment is  meted  out  by  the  man  who  has  charge  of  all 
activities  of  the  men  under  him.  This  is  actually,  in 
practice  and  in  theory,  psychologically  wrong.  If 
there  is  one  man  who  should  be  in  a  state  of  mind  that 
would  enable  him  to  judge  dispassionately,  it  is  the 
disciplinarian.  The  man  to  be  disciplined  is  usually 
guilty  of  one  of  six  offenses : 

1.  an  offense  against  an  employe  of  a  grade  above 
him. 

2.  an  offense  against  an  employe  of  the  same 
grade. 

3.  an  offense  against  an  employe  of  a  grade  be- 
low him. 

4.  falling  short  in  the  quality  of  his  work. 

5.  falling  short  in  the  quantity  of  his  work. 

6.  an  offense  against  the  system  (disobeying  or- 
ders), falling  down  on  schedule,  or  intentionally  not 
cooperating. 

The  employe  over  him,  or  the  foreman,  to  whom 
he  is  supposed  to  have  done  some  injustice,  would  be 
in    no    state    of    mind    to    judge    as    to    the    man's 


70  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

culpability.  In  the  case  of  an  offense  against  an 
employe  of  the  same  grade,  the  best  that  the  injured 
employe  could  do  would  be  to  appeal  to  his  fore- 
man, who  oftentimes  is  not  an  unprejudiced  judge, 
and,  the  multiplicity  of  whose  duties  give  him  little 
time  to  give  attention  to  the  subject  of  disciplining. 

If  the  offense  is  against  quantity  or  quality  of  work, 
again  the  old  fashioned  foreman,  for  lack  of  time,  and 
for  lack  of  training  and  proper  standards  of  measure- 
ment, will  find  it  almost  impossible  to  know  how 
guilty  the  man  is,  and  what  form  of  punishment  and 
what  amount  of  punishment  or  loss  of  opportunity  for 
progress  will  be  appropriate. 

Changes  in  Disciplinarian's  Function  Under  Scien- 
tific Management. —  All  this  is  changed  under 
Scientific  Management.  The  disciplinarian  is  a  spe- 
cially appointed  functional  foreman,  and  has  few  other 
duties  except  those  that  are  directly  or  indirectly  con- 
nected with  disciplining.  He  is  in  touch  with  the  re- 
quirements of  the  work,  because  he  is  in  the  Planning 
Department;  he  is  in  touch  with  the  employment 
bureau,  and  knows  which  men  should  be  employed; 
he  has  a  determining  voice  in  deciding  elementary 
rate  fixing  and  should  always  be  consulted  before 
wages  are  changed  or  a  reassignment  of  duties  is  de- 
termined. All  of  these  are  great  advantages  to  him 
in  deciding  justly  and  appropriately  punishments  and 
promotion,  not  for  the  workers  alone  but  also  for 
the  foremen  and  the  managers. 

Duties  of  the  Disciplinarian. —  The  Disciplinarian 
keeps  a  record  of  each  man's  virtues  and  defects;  he 
is  in  position  to  know  all  about  the  man;  where  he 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  71 

comes  from;  what  his  natural  and  acquired  qualifica- 
tions are;  what  his  good  points,  possibilities  and  spe- 
cial fitness  are;  what  his  wages  are,  and  his  need  for 
them.  All  that  it  is  possible  for  the  managers  to 
know  of  the  men  is  to  be  concentrated  in  this  dis- 
ciplinarian. He  is,  in  practice,  more  the  counsel  and 
advocate  of  the  worker  than  an  unsympathetic  judge, 
as  is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  his  chief  function  is 
that  of  "  diplomat  "  and  "  peacemaker."  His  great- 
est duty  is  to  see  that  the  "  square  deal "  Is  meted  out 
without  fear  or  favor  to  employer  or  to  employe. 

Importance  of  Psychology  in  Disciplining. —  Not 
only  does  the  position  of  disciplinarian  under  Scien- 
tific Management  answer  the  psychological  require- 
ments for  such  a  function,  but  also  the  holder  of  the 
position  of  disciplinarian  must  understand  psychology 
and  apply,  at  least  unconsciously,  and  preferably 
consciously,  the  known  laws  of  psychology,  if  he 
wishes  to  be  successful. 

The  disciplinarian  must  consider  not  only  what  the 
man  has  done  and  the  relation  of  this  act  of  his  to 
his  other  acts ;  he  must  also  investigate  the  cause  and 
the  motive  of  the  act,  for  on  the  cause  and  motive,  in 
reality,  depends  more  than  on  the  act  itself.  He  must 
probe  into  the  physical  condition  of  the  man,  as  re- 
lated to  his  mental  acts.  He  must  note  the  effect  of 
the  same  kind  of  discipline  under  different  conditions ; 
for  example,  he  must  note  that,  on  certain  types  of 
people,  disciplining  in  the  presence  of  other  people 
has  a  most  derogatory  effect,  just  as  rewards  before 
people  may  have  a  most  advantageous  effect.  Upon 
others,  discipline  that  is  meted  out  in  the  presence  of 


72  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

other  people  is  the  only  sort  of  discipline  which  has 
the  desired  effect.  The  sensitiveness  of  the  person  to 
be  disciplined,  the  necessity  for  sharp  discipline,  and 
for  that  particular  sort  of  discipline  which  may  re- 
quire the  element  of  shame  in  it,  must  all  be  con- 
sidered. He  must  be  able  to  discover  and  note 
whether  the  discipline  should  be  meted  out  to  a  ring- 
leader, and  whether  the  other  employes,  supposed  to 
be  blameworthy,  are  really  only  guilty  in  acquiescing, 
or  in  failing  to  report  one  who  has  really  furnished 
the  initiative.  He  must  differentiate  acts  which  are 
the  result  of  following  a  ringleader  blindly  from  the 
concerted  acts  of  disobedience  of  a  crowd,  for  the 
"  mob  spirit  "  is  always  an  element  to  be  estimated 
and  separately  handled. 

Inadequacy  of  Terms  in  Disciplining. —  The  words 
"  disciplinarian  "  and  "  punishment  "  are  most  un- 
fortunate. The  "  Disciplinarian  "  would  be  far  bet- 
ter called  the  "  peacemaker,"  and  the  "  punishment  " 
by  some  such  word  as  the  "  adjustment."  It  is  not 
the  duty  of  the  disciplinarian  to  "  take  out  anybody's 
grudge"  against  a  man;  it  is  his  duty  to  adjust  dis-, 
agreements.  He  must  remember  constantly  that  his 
discipline  must  be  of  such  a  nature  that  the  result 
will  be  for  the  permanent  best  interests  of  the  one 
disciplined,  his  co-workers,  his  associates  and  his 
family. 

The  aim  is,  not  to  put  the  man  down,  but  to  keep 
him  up  to  his  standard,  as  will  be  shown  later  in  a 
chapter  on  Incentives.  If  the  punishment  is  in  the 
form  of  a  fine,  it  must  not  in  any  way  return  to  the 
coffers  of  the  management.     The  fines  collected  — 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  13 

even  those  fines  collected  from  the  individuals  com- 
posing the  management,  should  go  in  some  form  to  the 
benefit  of  the  men  themselves,  such,  for  example,  as 
contributions  to  a  workman's  sick  benefit  fund  or  to 
general  entertainment  at  the  annual  outing  of  em- 
ployes. In  practice,  the  disciplinarian  is  rather  the 
friend  of  the  worker  than  of  the  employer,  if  the  two 
interests  can  possibly  be  separated.  Again  "  pen- 
alty "  is  a  bad  word  to  use.  Any  words  used  in  this 
connection  should  preferably  have  had  taken  from 
them  any  feeling  that  personal  prejudice  affects  the 
discipline.  It  is  the  nature  of  the  offense  itself  which 
should  prescribe  what  the  outcome  of  it  shall  be. 

The  position  of  disciplinarian  requires  a  man  who 
has  a  keen  sense  of  justice,  who  has  had  such  ex- 
perience as  to  enable  him  to  smooth  out  difficulties 
until  all  are  in  a  frame  of  mind  where  they  can  look 
upon  their  own  acts  and  the  acts  of  others  calmly. 
He  must  be  able  so  to  administer  his  duties  that  each 
decision  inspires  the  realization  that  he  acted  to  the 
best  of  his  knowledge  and  belief.  He  must  be  one 
who  is  fearless,  and  has  no  tendency  to  have  favorites. 
He  must  have  a  clear  knowledge  of  the  theories  and 
principles  of  Scientific  Management,  in  order  that  he 
can  fill  the  position  of  enforcer  of  its  laws. 

The  Gang  Boss. — The  duties  of  The  Gang  Boss 
are  to  see  that  the  worker  has  plenty  of  work 
ahead,  to  see  that  everything  that  he  will  need  with 
which  to  do  the  work  is  at  hand,  and  to  see  that  the 
work  is  actually  "  set,"  or  placed  and  performed  cor- 
rectly. This  position  calls  for  a  practical  demon- 
strator, who  must  himself  be  able  and  willing  actually 


74  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

to  prepare  and  help  on  the  work.  It  calls  particularly 
for  a  man  with  teaching  ability,  with  special  em- 
phasis on  ability  to  teach,  with  great  exactness,  the 
prescribed  method  and  to  follow  the  orders  of  the 
planning  department  implicitly. 

The  Speed  Boss. —  The  speed  boss  is  responsible 
for  the  methods  of  doing  work  with  machinery.  He 
has  charge  of  overseeing  the  work,  and  teaching  the 
worker,  during  the  entire  time  that  the  work  is  being 
done.  He  must  be  prepared  constantly  to  demon- 
strate at  any  time  not  only  how  the  work  is  done,  but 
also  that  it  can  be  done  in  the  specified  time  called  for 
in  order  to  earn  the  bonus.  This  position  calls  for  a 
man  who  is  able,  personally,  to  carry  out  the  detailed 
written  orders  of  the  instruction  card  in  regard  to 
speeds,  feeds,  cuts,  methods  of  operation,  quality  and 
quantity. 

He  must  be  proficient  at  the  art  of  imparting  his 
knowledge  to  other  workmen,  and  at  the  same  time 
be  able  to  secure  the  prescribed  outputs  and  quan- 
tities. He  need  not  be  the  fastest  worker  in  the  shop, 
but  he  should  be  one  of  the  most  intelligent  workers 
and  best  teachers,  with  a  keen  desire  to  cooperate, 
both  with  the  workers  and  with  the  other  foremen. 

The  Repair  Boss. —  The  repair  boss  has  charge  of 
the  plant  and  its  maintenance.  He  must  have  a 
natural  love  of  order  and  of  cleanliness,  and  a  sys- 
tematic type  of  mind.  This  position  calls  for  a  man 
with  an  experience  that  will  enable  him  to  detect 
liability  of  breakdowns  before  they  actually  occur. 
He  must  be  resourceful  in  repairing  unexpected 
breakdowns  in  an  emergency,  and  be  able  at  all  times 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  75 

to  carry  out  literally  the  directions  given  on  the  in- 
struction cards  of  the  Planning  Department  for  clean- 
ing, maintaining,  and  repairing  the  machines. 

The  Inspector. —  The  function  of  inspector  under 
scientific  or  the  Taylor  plan  of  management  is  most 
important,  especially  in  connection  with  the  "  first 
inspection."  During  the  manufacture  of  the  first 
piece  and  after  it  is  finished  the  inspector  passes  and 
reports  upon  it  before  the  worker  proceeds  with  the 
other  pieces.  Here  the  worker  gets  a  return  in  per- 
son for  each  successive  act  on  the  first  piece  he  makes 
under  a  new  instruction  card,  or,  if  he  is  a  new  worker, 
under  an  old  instruction  card.  Ambiguity  of  instruc- 
tions, if  present,  is  thus  eliminated,  and  wrong  ac- 
tions or  results  are  corrected  before  much  damage  to 
material  has  been  done  and  before  much  time  and 
effort  are  wasted.  The  first  erroneous  cycles  of  work 
are  not  repeated,  and  the  worker  is  promptly  shown 
exactly  how  efBciently  he  has  succeeded  in  determin- 
ing the  requirements  of  his  instructions. 

The  inspector  is  responsible  for  the  quality  of  the 
work.  He  fulfills  the  requirements  of  Schloss,  who 
says,  in  speaking  of  the  danger,  under  some  manage- 
ments, that  the  foreman  will  sacrifice  quality  to  speed, 
if  he  gets  a  bonus  for  quantity  of  output, — "  The 
best  safeguard  against  this  serious  danger  would  be 
found  in  the  appointment  of  a  distinct  staff  of  in- 
spectors whose  duty  it  should  be  to  ascertain,  as  the 
work  proceeds,  that  the  stipulated  standards  of  ex- 
cellence are  at  all  times  scrupulously  maintained." 
This  position  of  inspector  requires  an  observant  man 
who  naturally  is  inclined  to  give  constructive  rather 


76  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

than  destructive  criticism.  He  should  be  a  man  who 
can  cooperate  with  the  workman  and  foreman  to  res- 
cue condemned  or  damaged  material  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  time,  effort  and  expense. 

Functionalizing  the  Worker. —  Under  Scientific 
Management,  the  worker  as  well  as  the  foreman,  is 
a  specialist.  This  he  becomes  by  being  relieved  of 
everything  that  he  is  not  best  fitted  to  do,  and  allowed 
to  concentrate  upon  doing,  according  to  exact  and 
scientifically  derived  methods,  that  work  at  which  he 
is  an  expert. ^^ 

Relieving  the  Worker  of  the  Planning. —  The  plan- 
ning is  taken  away  from  the  worker,  not  because  it  is 
something  too  choice,  sacred  or  entertaining  for  him 
to  do,  or  something  which  the  managers  desire  to  do 
themselves,  but  because  it  is  best,  for  the  workers 
themselves  as  well  as  the  work,  that  the  planning  be 
done  by  specialists  at  planning.  If  he  is  expert 
enough  to  plan,  the  worker  will  be  promoted  to  the 
planning  department.  In  the  meantime,  he  is  work- 
ing under  the  best  plan  that  experts  can  devise. 

Master  Planning  a  Life  Study. —  The  best  planner 
is  he  who, —  other  things  being  equal, —  is  the  most 
ingenious,  the  most  experienced  and  the  best  ob- 
server. It  is  an  art  to  observe;  it  requires  persistent 
attention.  The  longer  and  the  more  the  observer  ob- 
serves, the  more  details,  and  variables  affecting  de- 

13  C.  Babbage,  Economy  of  Manufacturers,  p.  172.  "  The  con- 
stant repetition  of  the  same  process  necessarily  produces  in  the 
workman  a  degree  of  excellence  and  rapidity  in  his  particular  de- 
partment, which  is  never  possessed  by  a  person  who  is  obliged  to 
execute  many  different  processes." 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  77 

tails,  he  observes.  The  untrained  observer  could  not 
expect  to  compete  with  one  of  special  natural  talent 
who  has  also  been  trained.  It  is  not  every  man  who 
is  fitted  by  nature  to  observe  closely,  hence  to  plan. 
To  observe  is  a  condition  precedent  to  visualizing. 
Practice  in  visualizing  makes  for  increasing  the  fac- 
ility of  constructive  imagination.  He  with  the  best 
constructive  imagination  is  the  master  planner. 

The  art  of  observing  is  founded  on  a  study  of  funda- 
mental elements.  In  order  that  planning  may  be 
done  best,  previous  to  starting  work,  the  entire  se- 
quence of  operations  must  be  laid  out,  so  that  the 
ideas  of  value  of  every  element  of  every  subdivision 
of  the  process  of  working  may  be  corrected  to  act 
most  ef^ciently  in  relation  with  each  and  all  of  the 
subsequent  parts  and  events  that  are  to  follow.  This 
planning  forwards  and  backwards  demands  an  equip- 
ment of  time  study,  motion  study  and  micro-motion 
study  records  such  as  can  be  used  economically  only 
when  all  the  planning  is  done  in  one  place,  with  one 
set  of  records.  The  planner  must  be  able  to  see  and 
control  the  whole  problem  in  all  of  its  aspects. 

For  example, —  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  the 
work  after  it  is  completed  may  entirely  change  the 
'  thods  best  used  in  doing  it.  Thus,  the  face  of  a 
jrick  wall  that  is  to  be  plastered  does  not  require  and 
should  not  have  the  usual  excellence  of  nicely  ruled 
joints  required  on  a  face  that  is  not  to  be  plastered. 
In  fact,  the  roughest,  raggedest  joints  will  be  that 
quality  of  wall  that  will  make  the  plaster  adhere  the 
best. 


76  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

than  destructive  criticism.  He  should  be  a  man  who 
can  cooperate  with  the  workman  and  foreman  to  res- 
cue condemned  or  damaged  material  with  the  least 
expenditure  of  time,  effort  and  expense. 

Functionalizing  the  Worker. —  Under  Scientific 
Management,  the  worker  as  well  as  the  foreman,  is 
a  specialist.  This  he  becomes  by  being  relieved  of 
everything  that  he  is  not  best  fitted  to  do,  and  allowed 
to  concentrate  upon  doing,  according  to  exact  and 
scientifically  derived  methods,  that  work  at  which  he 
is  an  expert. ^^ 

Relieving  the  Worker  of  the  Plcinning. —  The  plan- 
ning is  taken  away  from  the  worker,  not  because  it  is 
something  too  choice,  sacred  or  entertaining  for  him 
to  do,  or  something  which  the  managers  desire  to  do 
themselves,  but  because  it  is  best,  for  the  workers 
themselves  as  well  as  the  work,  that  the  planning  be 
done  by  specialists  at  planning.  If  he  is  expert 
enough  to  plan,  the  worker  will  be  promoted  to  the 
planning  department.  In  the  meantime,  he  is  work- 
ing under  the  best  plan  that  experts  can  devise. 

Master  Planning  a  Life  Study. —  The  best  planner 
is  he  who, —  other  things  being  equal, —  is  the  most 
ingenious,  the  most  experienced  and  the  best  ob- 
server. It  is  an  art  to  observe ;  it  requires  persistent 
attention.  The  longer  and  the  more  the  observer  ob- 
serves, the  more  details,  and  variables  affecting  de- 

13  C.  Babbage,  Economy  of  Manufacturers,  p.  172.  "  The  con- 
stant repetition  of  the  same  process  necessarily  produces  in  the 
workman  a  degree  of  excellence  and  rapidity  in  his  particular  de- 
partment, which  is  never  possessed  by  a  person  who  is  obliged  to 
execute  many  different  processes." 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  77 

tails,  he  observes.  The  untrained  observer  could  not 
expect  to  compete  w^ith  one  of  special  natural  talent 
who  has  also  been  trained.  It  is  not  every  man  who 
is  fitted  by  nature  to  observe  closely,  hence  to  plan. 
To  observe  is  a  condition  precedent  to  visualizing. 
Practice  in  visualizing  makes  for  increasing  the  fac- 
ulty of  constructive  imagination.  He  with  the  best 
constructive  imagination  is  the  master  planner. 

The  art  of  observing  is  founded  on  a  study  of  funda- 
mental elements.  In  order  that  planning  may  be 
done  best,  previous  to  starting  work,  the  entire  se- 
quence of  operations  must  be  laid  out,  so  that  the 
ideas  of  value  of  every  element  of  every  subdivision 
of  the  process  of  working  may  be  corrected  to  act 
most  efficiently  in  relation  with  each  and  all  of  the 
subsequent  parts  and  events  that  are  to  follow.  This 
planning  forwards  and  backwards  demands  an  equip- 
ment of  time  study,  motion  study  and  micro-motion 
study  records  such  as  can  be  used  economically  only 
when  all  the  planning  is  done  in  one  place,  with  one 
set  of  records.  The  planner  must  be  able  to  see  and 
control  the  whole  problem  in  all  of  its  aspects. 

For  example, —  the  use  that  is  to  be  made  of  the 
work  after  it  is  completed  may  entirely  change  the 
methods  best  used  in  doing  it.  Thus,  the  face  of  a 
brick  wall  that  is  to  be  plastered  does  not  require  and 
should  not  have  the  usual  excellence  of  nicely  ruled 
joints  required  on  a  face  that  is  not  to  be  plastered. 
In  fact,  the  roughest,  raggedest  joints  will  be  that 
quality  of  wall  that  will  make  the  plaster  adhere  the 
best. 


78  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

As  an  example  of  professional  observation  and  in- 
vestigation with  which  no  untrained  observer  could 
compete,  we  cite  the  epoch  making  work  of  Dr. 
Taylor  in  determining  the  most  efficient  speeds, 
feeds,  cuts  and  shape  of  tools  to  use  for  the  least 
wastefulness  in  cutting  metals.^* 

Dr.  Taylor,  an  unusually  brilliant  man,  at  the  end 
of  twenty-six  years,  working  with  the  best  scientists, 
engineers,  experimenters,  and  workmen,  after  an  ex- 
penditure of  literally  hundreds  of  thousands  of  dol- 
lars, was  able  to  determine  and  write  down  a  method 
for  cutting  metals  many  times  less  wasteful  in  time 
than  was  ever  known  before;  but  the  data  from  the 
experiments  was  so  complex  and  involved  that  a 
considerable  knowledge  of  higher  mathematics  had 
to  be  used  to  apply  the  data.  Furthermore,  the  data 
was  in  such  form  that  it  took  longer  to  use  the  knowl- 
edge contained  therein  than  it  did  to  do  the  work  on 
any  given  piece  of  metal  cutting.  After  gathering 
this  knowledge.  Dr.  Taylor,  with  his  assistants,  first 
Mr.  Gantt  and  finally  Mr.  Barth,  reduced  it  to  such 
a  form  that  now  it  can  be  used  in  a  matter  of  a  few 
seconds  or  minutes.  This  was  done  by  making  slide 
rules. ^^  Today  workers  have  this  knowledge  in  a 
form  that  any  machinist  can  use  with  a  little  in- 
struction. As  a  result,  Dr.  Taylor's  observations 
have  revolutionized  the  design  of  metal  cutting  ma- 
chinery and  the  metal  cutting  industry,  and  the  data 

i*F.  W.  Taylor,  On  the  Art  of  Cutting  Metals.  Paper  No.  1119, 
A.  S.  M.  E.    . 

^^  C.  G.  Barth,  Slide  Rules  for  Machine  Shops  and  Taylor  Sys- 
tem.   Paper  No.  loio,  A.  S.  M.  E. 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  79 

he  collected  is  used  in  every  metal  cutting  planning 
department. 

Furthermore,  as  a  by-product  to  his  observations 
and  investigations,  he  discovered  the  Taylor-White 
process  of  making  high  speed  steel,  w^hich  revolu- 
tionized the  steel  tool  industry.  No  untrained  work- 
man could  expect  ever  to  compete  with  such  work  as 
this  in  obtaining  results  for  most  efficient  planning 
and  at  the  same  time  perform  his  ordinary  work. 

Wastefulness  of  Individual  Planning. —  Even  if  it 
were  possible  so  to  arrange  the  work  of  every  worker 
that  he  could  be  in  close  proximity  to  the  equipment 
for  planning  and  could  be  given  the  training  needed, 
individual  planning  for  "  small  lots  "  with  no  sys- 
tematized standardization  of  planning-results  would 
be  an  economic  waste  that  would  cause  an  unneces- 
sary hardship  on  the  worker,  the  employer  and  the 
ultimate  consumer.  Individual  planning  could  not 
fit  the  broad  scheme  of  planning,  and  at  best  would 
cause  delays  and  confusion,  and  make  an  incentive 
to  plan  for  the  individual  self,  instead  of  planning 
for  the  greatest  good  of  the  greatest  number. 

Again,  even  if  it  were  possible  to  plan  best  by  in- 
dividual planning,  there  is  a  further  waste  in  chang- 
ing from  one  kind  of  work  to  another.  This  waste  is 
so  great  and  so  obvious  that  it  was  noticed  and  rec- 
ognized by  the  earliest  manufacturers  and  econo- 
mists. 

Hardship  to  the  Worker  of  Individual  Plan- 
ning.—  To  obtain  the  most  wages  and  profits  there 
must  be  the  most  savings  to  divide.  These  cannot 
be  obtained  when  each  man  plans  for  himself   (ex- 


8o     THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

cept  in  the  home  trades),  because  all  large  modern 
operations  have  the  quantity  of  output  dependent 
upon  the  amount  of  blockades,  stoppages  and  inter- 
ferences caused  by  dependent  sequences.  It  is  not, 
therefore,  possible  to  obtain  the  most  profit  or  most 
wages  by  individual  planning.  Planning  is  a  general 
function,  and  the  only  way  to  obtain  the  best  re- 
sults is  by  organized  planning,  and  by  seeing  that  no 
planning  is  done  for  one  worker  without  proper  con- 
sideration of  its  bearing  and  effect  upon  any  or  all 
the  other  men's  outputs. 

The  Man  Who  Desires  to  Be  a  Planner  Can  Be 
One. —  If  the  worker  is  the  sort  of  a  man  who  can 
observe  and  plan,  or  who  desires  to  plan,  even  though 
he  is  not  at  first  employed  in  the  planning  depart- 
ment, he  is  sure  to  get  there  finally,  as  the  system 
provides  that  each  man  shall  go  where  he  is  best 
fitted.  Positions  in  planning  departments  are  hard 
to  fill,  because  of  the  scarcity  of  men  equipped  to 
do  this  work.  The  difficulty  of  teaching  men  to  be- 
come highly  efficient  planners  is  one  of  the  reasons 
for  the  slow  advance  of  the  general  adoption  of 
Scientific  Management. 

The  Man  Who  Dislikes  Planning  Can  Be  Re- 
lieved.—  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  many  people 
dislike  the  planning  responsibility  in  connection  with 
their  work.  For  such,  relief  from  planning  makes 
the  performance  of  the  planned  work  more  interest- 
ing and  desirable. 

Provision  for  Planning  by  All  Under  Scientific 
Management. —  Much  has  been  said  about  the 
worker's  "  God-given  rights  to  think,"  and  about  the 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  6i 

necessity  for  providing  every  worker  with   an   op- 
portunity to  think.  ' 

Scientific  Management  provides  the  fullest  oppor- 
tunities for  every  man  to  think,  to  exercise  his  mental 
faculties,  and  to  plan 

1.  in  doing  the  work  itself,  as  will  be  shown  at 
length  in  chapters  that  follow. 

2.  outside  of  the  regular  working  hours,  but  in 
connection  with  promotion  in  his  regular  work. 

Scientific  Management  provides  always,  and  most 
emphatically,  that  the  man  shall  have  hours  free 
from  his  work  in  such  a  state  that  he  will  not  be  too 
fatigued  to  do  anything.  Furthermore,  if  he  work 
as  directed,  his  number  of  working  hours  per  day  will 
be  so  reduced  that  he  will  have  more  time  each  day 
for  his  chosen  form  of  mental  stimulus  and  improve- 
ment. 

Our  friend  John  Brashear  is  a  most  excellent  ex- 
ample of  what  one  can  do  in  after  hours  away  from 
his  work.  He  was  a  laborer  in  a  steel  mill.  His  duties 
were  not  such  as  resemble  in  any  way  planning  or 
research  work,  yet  he  became  one  of  the  world's  most 
prominent  astronomical  thinkers  and  an  Honorary 
member  of  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical 
Engineers,  because  he  had  the  desire  to  be  a  student. 
Under  Scientific  Management  such  a  desire  receives 
added  impetus  from  the  method  of  attack  provided 
for  through  its  teaching. 

Functionalizing  the  Work  Itself. —  The  work  of 
each  part  of  the  planning  and  performing  depart- 
ments may  be  functionalized,  or  subdivided,  as  the 
result   of  motion   study   and   time   study.     The   ele- 


82  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

mentary  timed  units  are  combined  or  synthesized 
into  tasks,  made  to  fit  the  capabilities  of  specialized 
workers.     It  is  then  necessary  to :  — 

1.  List  the  duties  and  requirements  of  the  work. 

2.  Decide  whether  the  place  can  be  best  handled 
as  one,  or  subdivided  into  several  further  subdi- 
visions, or  functions,  or  even  sub-functions,  for  two 
or  more  function  specialists. 

For  the  sake  of  analysis,  all  work  may  be  con- 
sidered as  of  one  of  two  classes :  — 

1.  the  short  time  job. 

2.  the  long  time  job. 

These  two  divisions  are  handled  differently,  as  fol- 
lows: 

The  Short  Time  Job. —  On  the  short  time  job  that 
probably  will  never  be  repeated,  there  is  little  op- 
portunity and  no  economic  reason  for  specially  train- 
ing a  man  for  its  performance.  The  available  man 
best  suited  to  do  the  work  with  little  or  no  help 
should  be  chosen  to  do  it.  The  suitability  of  the 
man  for  the  work  should  be  determined  only  by  ap- 
plying simple  tests,  or,  if  even  these  will  cause  costly 
delay  or  more  expense  than  the  work  warrants,  the 
man  who  appears  suitable  and  who  most  desires  the 
opportunity  to  do  the  work  can  be  assigfned  to  it. 

If  the  job  is  connected  with  a  new  art,  a  man 
whose  habits  will  help  him  can  be  chosen. 

For  example :  —  in  selecting  a  man  to  fly,  it  has 
been  found  advantageous  to  give  a  trick  bicycle 
rider  the  preference. 

There  is  no  other  reason  why  the  man  for  the 
short  job  should  not  be  fitted  as  well  to  his  work  as 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  83 

the  man  for  the  long  job,  except  the  all-important 
reason  of  cost  for  special  preparation.  Any  expense 
for  study  of  the  workers  must  be  borne  ultimately 
both  by  worker  and  management,  and  it  is  undesir- 
able to  both  that  expense  should  be  incurred  which 
will  not  be  ultimately  repaid. 

The  Long  Time  Job. —  The  long  time  job  allows 
of  teaching,  therefore  applicants  for  it  may  be  care- 
fully studied.  Usually  that  man  should  be  chosen 
who,  with  all  the  natural  qualifications  and  capabili- 
ties for  the  job,  except  practical  skill,  requires  the 
most  teaching  to  raise  him  from  the  lower  plane  to 
that  highest  mental  and  manual  plane  which  he  is 
able  to  fill  successfully  continuously.  In  this  way 
each  man  will  be  developed  into  a  worker  of  great 
value  to  the  management  and  to  himself. 

The  man  who  is  capable  and  already  skilled  at 
some  work  is  thus  available  for  a  still  higher  job,  for 
which  he  can  be  taught.  Thus  the  long  job  affords 
the  greatest  opportunity  for  promotion.  The  long 
job  justifies  the  expenditure  of  money,  effort  and 
time  by  management  and  men,  and  is  the  ideal  field 
for  the  application  of  scientific  selection  and  func- 
tionalization. 

SUMMARY 

Effect  of  Functionalization  upon  the  Work. —  Un- 
der Traditional  Management,  there  was  little  or  no 
definite  functionalization.  If  the  quantity  of  output 
did  increase,  as  the  result  of  putting  a  man  at  that 
work  for  which  he  seemed  best  fitted,  there  was 
seldom  provision  made  for  seeing  that  the  quality  of 


84  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

product  was  maintained  by  a  method  of  constructive 
inspection  that  prevented  downward  deviations  from 
standard  quality,  instead  of  condemning  large  quanti- 
ties of  the  finished  product. 

Under  Transitory  Management,  the  Department  of 
Inspection  is  one  of  the  first  Functions  installed. 
This  assures  maintained  quality,  and  provides  that 
all  increase  in  output  shall  be  actual  gain. 

Under  Scientific  Management,  functionalization  re- 
sults in  increased  quantity  of  output,^®  with  main- 
tained and  usually  increased  quality. ^"^  This  results 
in  decreased  cost.  The  cost  is  sufficiently  lower  to 
allow  of  increased  wages  to  the  employes,  a  further 
profit  to  the  employer,  and  a  maintained,  or  low- 
ered, selling  price.  This  means  a  benefit  to  the  con- 
sumer. 

It  may  be  objected  that  costs  cannot  be  lowered, 
because  of  the  number  of  so-called  "  non-producers  " 
provided  for  by  Scientific  Management. 

In  answer  to  this  it  may  be  said  that  there  are  no 
non-producers  under  Scientific  Management.  Cor- 
responding work  that,  under  Scientific  Management, 
is  done  in  the  planning  department  must  all  be  done 
somewhere,  in  a  less  systematic  manner,  even  under 
Traditional    Management. ^^     The    planning    depart- 

18  H.  L.  Gantt,  Work,  Wages  and  ProHts,  p.  19. 

"^"^  Adam  Smith,  Wealth  of  Nations,  p.  2.  "  The  greatest  improve- 
ment in  the  productive  powers  of  labor,  and  the  greater  part  of  the 
skill,  dexterity,  and  judgment,  with  which  it  is  anywhere  directed, 
or  applied,  seem  to  have  been  the  effects  of  the  division  of  labor." 
Also  p.  4. 

i^H.  K.  Hathaway,  The  Value  of  "Non-Producers"  in  Manu- 
facturing Plants.    Machinery,  Nov.,  1906,  p.  134. 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  85 

merit,  simply  does  this  work  more  efficiently, —  with 
less  waste.  Moreover,  much  work  of  the  planning 
department,  being  founded  on  elementary  units,  is 
available  for  constant  use.  Here  results  an  emor- 
mous  saving  by  the  conservation  and  utilization  of 
planning  effort. 

Also,  standard  methods  are  more  apt  to  result  in 
standard  quality,  and  with  less  occasion  for  rejecting 
output  that  is  below  the  requisite  standards  than  is 
the  case  under  Traditional  Management. 

Effect  of  Functionalization  upon  the  Worker. — 
Under  Traditional  Management,  even  if  the  worker 
often  becomes  functionalized,  he  seldom  has  as- 
surance that  he  will  be  able  to  reap  the  harvest  from 
remaining  so,  and  even  so,  neither  data  nor  teaching 
are  provided  to  enable  him  to  fulfill  his  function  most 
successfully. 

Under  Transitory  Management  the  worker  be- 
comes more  and  more  functionalized,  as  the  results 
of  motion  study  and  time  study  make  clear  the  ad- 
vantages of  specializing  the  worker. 

Effects  upon  the  Scientifically  Managed  Worker. — 
Under  Scientific  Management  the  effects  of  Func- 
tionalization are  so  universal  and  so  far  reaching  that 
it  is  necessary  to  enumerate  them  in  detail. 

Worker  Relieved  of  Everything  but  His  Special 
Functions. —  Functionalization,  in  providing  that 
every  man  is  assigned  a  special  function,  also  pro- 
vides that  he  be  called  upon  to  do  work  in  that  func- 
tion only,  relieving  him  of  all  other  work  and  re- 
sponsibility.    Realization   of   this   elimination   has   a 


86  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

psychological  effect  on  action  and  habits  of  think- 
ing.^^ 

Places  are  Provided  for  Specialists. —  Func- 
tionalization  utilizes  men  with  decided  bents,  and 
allows  each  man  to  occupy  that  place  for  which  he  is 
fitted. ^°  Assignment  to  functions  is  done  according 
to  the  capabiHties  and  desires  of  those  who  are  to 
fill  them. 

Specializing  Is  Encouraged. —  It  is  most  important 
to  remember  that  the  man  with  any  special  talent 
or  talents,  individuality  or  special  fitness  is  much 
more  likely,  under  Scientific  Management,  to  obtain 
and  retain  the  place  that  he  is  fitted  for  than  he  ever 
could  have  been  under  Traditional  Management,  for, 
while  many  fairly  efificient  men  can  be  found  who  can 
fill  a  general  position,  a  man  with  the  marked  de- 
sirable trait  necessary  to  fill  a  distinct  position  re- 
quiring that  trait,  will  be  one  of  few,  and  will  have 
his  place  waiting  for  him. 

One-Talent  Men  Utilized. —  With  Functionaliza- 
tion,  men  who  lack  qualifications  for  the  position 
which  they  may,  at  the  start,  endeavor  to  fill,  may 
be  transferred  to  other  positions,  where  the  qualities 
they  lack  are  not  required.  If  a  man  has  one  talent. 
Scientific  Management  provides  a  place  where  that 
can  be  utilized. 

For  example :  — 

Men    who    cannot    produce    the    prescribed    out- 

^8  Gillette  and  Dana,  Cost  Keeping  and  Management  Engineering, 
p.  II. 

20  Morris  Llewellyn  Cooke,  Bulletin  No.  5,  Carnegie  Foundation 
for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  p.  15. 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  87 

put  constantly,  are  placed  on  other  work.  The  slow, 
unskilled  worker  who  has  difficulty  to  learn,  may  be 
put  upon  work  requiring  less  skill,  or  where  speed  is 
not  "required  so  much  as  watchfulness  and  faithful- 
ness. The  worker  who  is  slow,  but  exceptionally 
skilled,  has  the  opportunity  to  rise  to  the  position  of 
the  functional  foreman,  especially  in  the  planning  de- 
partment, where  knowledge,  experience  and  resource- 
fulness, and  especially  ability  to  teach,  are  much  more 
desired  than  speed  and  endurance.  Thus  there  are 
places  provided,  below  and  above,  that  can  utilize 
all  kinds  of  abilities. 

"  All  Round  "  Men  Are  Utilized. —  The  exceptional 
man  who  possesses  executive  ability  in  all  lines,  and 
balance  between  them  all,  is  the  ideal  man  for  a 
manager,  and  his  special  "  all  round  "  ability  would 
be  wasted  in  any  position  below  that  of  a  man- 
ager. 

Stability  Provided  For. —  Every  man  is  maintained 
in  his  place  by  his  interresponsibility  with  other  men. 
If  he  is  a  worker,  every  man's  work  is  held  to  stand- 
ard quality  by  the  inspector,  while  the  requirements 
and  rewards  of  his  function  are  kept  before  him  by 
the  instruction  card  man,  rate  fixer  and  the  disci- 
plinarian. 

Promotion  and  Development  Provided  For. — 
Functionalization  provides  for  promotion  by  show- 
ing every  man  not  only  the  clearly  circumscribed 
place  where  he  is  to  work,  but  also  by  showing  him 
the  definite  place  above  him  to  which  he  may  be 
promoted  and  its  path,  and  by  teaching  him  how  he 
can  fill  it.     This  allows  him  to  develop  the  possibili- 


88     THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ties  of  his  best  self  by  using  and  specially  training 
those  talents  which  are  most  marked  in  him. 

Functional  Foremanship  allows  many  more  people 
to  become  foremen,  and  to  develop  the  will  and  judg- 
ment which  foremanship  implies. 

Men  in  the  Organization  Preferred  to  Outsiders. — 
Men  in  the  organization  are  preferable  to  outsiders 
as  functional  foremen  and  for  promotion.  Not  only 
does  a  worker's  knowledge  of  his  work  help  him  to 
become  more  efficient  when  he  is  promoted  to  the 
position  of  foreman, —  but  his  efficiency  as  a  teacher 
is  also  increased  by  the  fact  that  he  knows  and  un- 
derstands the  workers  whom  he  is  there  to  teach. 

All  Men  Are  Pushed  Up. —  Scientific  Management 
raises  every  man  as  high  as  he  is  capable  of  being 
raised.  It  does  not  speed  him  up,  but  pushes  him 
up  to  the  highest  notch  which  he  can  fill.  Actual 
practice  has  shown  that  there  is  a  greater  demand  for 
efficient  men  in  the  planning  department  than  there 
is  supply;  also,  that  men  in  the  planning  department 
who  fit  themselves  for  higher  work  can  be  readily 
promoted  to  positions  of  greater  responsibility,  either 
inside  or  outside  the  organization. 

Years  of  Productivity  Prolonged. —  Under  Func- 
tionalization  the  number  of  years  of  productivity  of 
all,  workers  and  foremen  alike,  are  increased.  The 
specialty  to  which  the  man  is  assigned  is  his  natural 
specialty,  thus  his  possible  and  profitable  working 
years  are  prolonged,  because  he  is  at  that  work  for 
which  he  is  naturally  fitted. 

Moreover,  the  work  of  teaching  is  one  at  which 
the  teacher  becomes  more  clever  and  more  valuable 


FUNCTIONALIZATION  89 

as  time  goes  on,  the  functional  foreman  has  that  much 
more  chance  to  become  valuable  as  years  go  by. 

Change  in  the  Worker's  Mental  Attitude. —  The 
work  under  functlonalization  is  such  as  to  arouse 
the  worker's  attention  and  to  hold  his  interest. ^^ 
But  the  most  important  and  valuable  change  in  the 
worker's  feelings  is  the  change  in  his  attitude  towards 
the  foremen  and  the  employer.  From  "  natural 
enemies  "  as  sometimes  considered  under  typical  Tra- 
ditional Management,  these  all  now  become  friends, 
with  the  common  aim,  cooperation,  for  the  purpose 
of  increasing  output  and  wages,  and  lowering  costs. 
This  change  of  feeling  results  in  an  appreciation  of 
the  value  of  teaching,  and  also  in  promoting  industrial 
peace. 

21 H.  L.  Gantt,  Work,  Wages  and  Profits,  p.  120. 


CHAPTER  IV 

MEASUREMENT 

Definition  of  Measurement. — "  Measurement,"  ac- 
cording to  the  Century  Dictionary, — "  is  the  act  of 
measuring,"  and  to  measure  is  — "  to  ascertain  the 
length,  extent,  dimensions,  quantity  or  capacity  of, 
by  comparison  with  a  standard;  ascertain  or  deter- 
mine a  quantity  by  exact  observation,"  or,  again, 
"  to  estimate  or  determine  the  relative  extent,  great- 
ness or  value  of,  appraise  by  comparison  with  some- 
thing else." 

Measurement  Important  in  Psychology.^ —  Meas- 
urement has  always  been  of  importance  in  psy- 
chology; but  it  is  only  with  the  development  of  ex- 
perimental psychology  and  its  special  apparatus,  that 
methods  of  accurate  measurements  are  available 
which  make  possible  the  measurement  of  extremely 
short  periods  of  time,  or  measurements  "  quick  as 
thought."  These  enable  us  to  measure  the  varia- 
tions of  different  workers  as  to  their  abilities  and 
their  mental  and  physical  fatigue ;  ^  to  study  mental 
processes  at  different  stages  of  mental  and  physical 
growth;  to  compare  different  people  under  the  same 
conditions,  and  the  same  person  under  different  con- 

iHugo  Miinsterberg,  American  Problems,  p.  34. 

90 


MEASUREMENT  9X 

ditions;  to  determine  the  personal  coefficient  of  dif- 
ferent workers,  specialists  and  foremen,  and  to 
formulate  resultant  standards.  As  in  all  other 
branches  of  science,  the  progress  comes  with  the 
development  of  measurement. 

Methods  of  Measurement  in  Psychology. —  No 
student  of  management,  and  of  measurement  in  the 
field  of  management,  can  afford  not  to  study,  care- 
fully and  at  length,  methods  of  measurement  under 
psychology.  This,  for  at  least  two  most  important 
reasons,  which  will  actually  improve  him  as  a  meas- 
urer, i.  e. — 

1.  The  student  will  discover,  in  the  books  on  ex- 
perimental psychology  and  in  the  "  Psychological 
Review,"  a  marvelous  array  of  results  of  scientific 
laboratory  experiments  in  psychology,  which  will  be 
of  immediate  use  to  him  in  his  work. 

2.  He  will  receive  priceless  instruction  in  methods 
of  measuring.  No  where"  better  than  in  the  field  of 
psychology,  can  one  learn  to  realize  the  importance 
of  measurements,  the  necessity  for  determination  of 
elements  for  study,  and  the  necessity  for  accurate 
apparatus  and  accuracy  in  observation. 

Prof.  George  M.  Stratton,  in  his  book  "  Experi- 
mental Psychology  and  Culture," —  says  "  In  mental 
measurements,  therefore,  there  is  no  pretense  of  tak- 
ing the  mind's  measure  as  a  whole,  nor  is  there 
usually  any  immediate  intention  of  testing  even  some 
special  faculty  or  capacity  of  the  individual.  What 
is  aimed  at  is  the  measurement  of  a  limited  event 
in  consciousness,  such  as  a  particular  perception  or 
feeling.     The  experiments  are  addressed,  of  course. 


g»  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

not  to  the  weight  or  size  of  such  phenomena,  but 
usually  to  their  duration  and  intensity."  ^ 

The  emphasis  laid  on  a  study  of  elements  is  further 
shown  in  the  same  book  by  the  following, — "  The 
actual  laboratory  work  in  time-measurement,  how- 
ever, has  been  narrowed  down  to  determining,  not 
the  time  in  general  that  is  occupied  by  some  mental 
action,  but  rather  the  shortest  possible  time  in  which 
a  particular  operation,  like  discrimination  or  choice 
or  association  or  recognition,  can  be  performed  un- 
der the  simplest  and  most  favorable  circumstances.^ 
The  experimental  results  here  are  something  like 
speed  or  racing  records,  made  under  the  best  con- 
ditions of  track  and  training.  A  delicate  chrono- 
graph or  chronoscope  is  used,  Which  marks  the  time 
in  thousandths  of  a  second." 

Measurement  in  Psychology  Related  to  Measure- 
ment in  Management. —  Measurement  in  psychol- 
ogy is  of  importance  to  measurement  in  manage- 
ment not  only  as  a  source  of  information  and  instruc- 
tion, but  also  as  a  justification  and  support.  Scien- 
tific Management  has  suffered  from  being  called  ab- 
surd, impractical,  impossible,  over-exact,  because  of 
the  emphasis  which  it  lays  on  measurement.  Yet,  to 
the  psychologist,  all  present  measurement  in  Scien- 
tific Management  must  appear  coarse,  inaccurate  and 
of  immediate  and  passing  value  only.  With  the 
knowledge  that  psychologists  endorse  accurate 
measurement,  and  will  cooperate  in  discovering  ele- 

2  G.  M.  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Its  Bearing  upon 
Culture,  p.  S7- 

3  Ibid.,  p.  38. 


MEASUREMENT  93 

ments  for  study,  instruments  of  precision  and 
methods  of  investigation,  the  investigator  in  in- 
dustrial fields  must  persist  in  his  work  w^ith  a  new 
interest  and  confidence.^ 

Scientific  Management  cannot  hope  to  furnish  psy- 
chology with  either  data  or  methods  of  measurement. 
It  can  and  does,  however,  open  a  new  field  for  study 
to  experimental  psychology,  and  shows  itself  willing 
to  furnish  the  actual  working  difficulties  or  problems, 
to  do  the  preliminary  investigation,  and  to  utilize  re- 
sults as  fast  as  they  can  be  obtained. 

Psychologists  Appreciate  Scientific  Management. — 
The  appreciation  which  psychologists  have  shown 
of  work  done  by  Scientific  Management  must  be  not 
only  a  matter  of  gratification,  but  of  inspiration  to 
all  workers  in  Scientific  Management. 

So,  also,  must  the  new  divisions  of  the  Index  to  the 
Psychological  Review  relating  to  Activity  and 
Fatigue,  and  the  work  being  so  extensively  done  in 
these  lines  by  French,  German,  Italian  and  other  na- 
tions, as  well  as  by  English  and  American  psychol- 
ogists. 

Measurement  Important  in  Management. —  The 
study  of  individuality  and  of  functionalization  have 
made  plain  the  necessity  of  measurement  for  success- 
ful management.  Measurement  furnishes  the  means 
for  obtaining  that  accurate  knowledge  upon  which 
the  science  of  management  rests,  as  do  all  sciences 
—  exact  and  inexact.^     Through  measurement,  meth- 

4  For  apparatus  for  psychological  experiment  see  Stratton,  p.  38, 
p.  171,  p.  265. 

^H.  L.  Gantt,  Work,  Wages  and  Profits,  p.  15. 


94  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ods  of  less  waste  are  determined,  standards  are 
made  possible,  and  management  becomes  a  science, 
as  it  derives  standards,  and  progressively  makes  and 
improves  them,  and  the  comparisons  from  them,  ac- 
curate. 

Problem  of  Measurement  in  Management. —  One 
of  the  important  problems  of  measurement  in  man- 
agement is  determining  how  many  hours  should  con- 
stitute the  working  day  in  each  different  kind  of  work 
and  at  what  gait  the  men  can  work  for  greatest  out- 
put and  continuously  thrive.  The  solution  of  this 
problem  involves  the  study  of  the  men,  the  work, 
and  the  methods,  which  study  must  become  more 
and  more  specialized;  but  the  underlying  aim  is  to 
determine  standards  and  individual  capacity  as  ex- 
actly as  is  possible.^ 

Capacity. —  There  are  at  least  four  views  of  a 
worker's  capacity. 

1.  What  he  thinks  his  capacity  is. 

2.  What   his   associates   think  his   capacity  is. 

3.  What  those  over  him  think  his  capacity  is, 

4.  What  accurate  measurement  determines  his 
actual  capacity  to  be. 

Ignorance  of  Real  Capacity. —  Dr.  Taylor  has  em- 
phasized the  fact  that  the  average  workman  does  not 
know  either  his  true  efficiency  or  his  true  capacity.'' 
The  experience  of  others  has  also  gone  to  show  that 
even  the  skilled  workman  has  little  or  inaccurate 
knowledge   of   the    amount   of   output   that   a    good 

« Morris  Llewellyn  Cooke,  Bulletin  No.  5,  The  Carnegie  Founda- 
tion for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  p.  7. 
''  F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  29.    Harper  Ed.,  p.  25. 


MEASUREMENT  95 

worker  can  achieve  at  his  chosen  vocation  in  a  given 
time.^ 

For  example, —  until  a  bricklayer  has  seen  his  out- 
put counted  for  several  days,  he  has  little  idea  of  how 
many  bricks  he  can  lay,  or  has  laid,  in  a  day.^ 

The  average  manager  is  usually  even  more  igno- 
rant of  the  capacity  of  the  workers  than  are  the  men 
themselves.^**  This  is  because  of  the  prevalence  of, 
and  the  actual  necessity  for  the  worker's  best  in- 
terest, under  some  forms  of  management,  of  "  sol- 
diering." Even  when  the  manager  realizes  that  sol- 
diering is  going  on,  he  has  no  way,  especially  under 
ordinary  management,   of  determining  its  extent. 

Little  Measurement  in  Traditional  Management. — 
Under  Traditional  Management  there  was  little  meas- 
urement of  a  man's  capacity.  The  emphasis  was  en- 
tirely on  the  results.  There  was,  it  is  true,  in  every- 
thing beyond  the  most  elementary  of  Traditional 
Management,  a  measurement  of  the  result.  The 
manager  did  know,  at  the  end  of  certain  periods  of 
time,  how  much  work  had  been  done,  and  how  much 
it  had  cost  him.  This  was  a  very  important  thing  for 
him  to  know.  If  his  cost  ran  too  high,  and  his  out- 
put fell  too  low,  he  investigated.  If  he  found  a  de- 
fect, he  tried  to  remedy  it;  but  much  time  had  to  be 
wasted  in  this  investigation,  because  often  he  had  no 
idea  where  to  start  in  to  look  for  the  defects.  The 
result  of  the  defects  was  usually  the  cause  for  the 
inquiry  as  to  their  presence. 

8  H.  L.  Gantt,  Paper  No.  928,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  para.  6. 

'F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Cost  Reducing  System. 

^oR  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  61.    Harper  Ed.,  p.  33. 


96     THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

He  might  investigate  the  men,  he  might  investigate 
the  methods,  he  might  investigate  the  equipment,  he 
might  investigate  the  surroundings,  and  so  on, —  and 
very  often  in  the  mind  of  the  Traditional  manager, 
there  was  not  even  this  most  elementary  division. 
If  things  w^ent  w^rong  he  simply  knew, — "  Something 
is  wrong  somewhere,"  and  it  was  the  work  of  the 
foremen  to  find  out  where  the  place  was,  or  so  to 
speed  up  the  men  that  the  output  should  be  increased 
and  the  cost  lowered.  Whether  the  defects  were 
really  remedied,  or  simply  concealed  by  temporarily 
speeding  up,  was  not  seriously  questioned. 

Moreover,  until  measuring  devices  are  secured,  the 
only  standard  is  what  someone  thinks  about  things, 
and  the  pity  of  it  is  that  even  this  condition  does  not 
remain  staple. 

Transitory  Management  Realizes  Value  of  Meas- 
urement.—  One  of  the  first  improvements  introduced 
when  Traditional  Management  gives  place  to  the 
Transitory  stage  is  the  measurement  of  the  separated 
output  of  individual  workers.  These  outputs  are 
measured  and  recorded.  The  records  for  extra  high 
outputs  are  presented  to  the  worker  promptly,  so  that 
he  may  have  a  keen  idea  constantly  of  the  relation  of 
effort  to  output,  while  the  fatigue  and  the  effort  of 
doing  the  work  is  still  fresh  in  his  mind. 

The  psychology  of  the  prompt  reward  will  be  con- 
sidered later  at  length,  but  it  cannot  be  emphasized 
too  often  that  the  prompter  the  reward,  the  greater 
the  stimulus.  The.  reward  will  become  associated 
with  the  fatigue  in  such  a  way  that  the  worker  will 
really  get,  at  the  time,  more  satisfaction  out  of  his 


MEASUREMENT  97 

fatigue  than  he  will  discomfort;  at  the  least,  any  dis- 
satisfaction over  his  fatigue  will  be  eliminated,  by 
the  constant  and  first  thought  of  the  reward  which  he 
has  gotten  through  his  efforts. 

This  record  of  efficiency  is  often  so  presented  to 
the  workers  that  they  get  an  excellent  idea  of  the 
numerical  measure  of  their  efficiency  and  its  trend. 
This  is  best  done  by  a  graphical  chart. 

The  records  of  the  outputs  of  others  on  the  same 
kind  of  work  done  concurrently,  or  a  corresponding 
record  on  work  done  previously,  will  show  the  rela- 
tive efficiency  of  any  worker  as  compared  with  the 
rest.  These  standards  of  comparison  are  a  strong 
incentive  and,  if  they  are  shown  at  the  time  that  such 
work  is  done,  they  also  become  so  closely  associated 
not  only  with  the  mental  but  the  bodily  feeling  of 
the  man  that  the  next  time  the  work  is  repeated,  the 
thoughts  that  the  same  effort  will  probably  bring 
greater  results,  and  that  it  has  done  so  in  the  past 
with  others,  will  be  immediately  present  in  the  mind. 

Measurement  Is  Basic  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.—  Under  Scientific  Management  measurement 
is  basic.  Measurement  is  of  the  work,  of  outputs,  of 
the  methods,  the  tools,  and  of  the  worker,  with  the 
individual  as  a  unit,  and  motion  study,  time  study  and 
micro-motion  study  and  the  chrono-cyclegraph  as  the 
methods  of  measurement. 

Measurement  is  a  most  necessary  adjunct  to  select- 
ing the  workers  and  the  managers  and  to  assigning 
them  to  the  proper  functions  and  work.  They  can- 
not be  selected  to  the  greatest  advantage  and  set  to 
functionalized  work  until  — 


g8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

(a)  the  unit  of  measurement  that  will  of  itself 
tend  to  reduce  costs  has  been  determined. 

(b)  methods  of  measurement  have  been  deter- 
mined, 

(c)  measurement  has  been  applied. 

(d)  standards   for  measurement  have  been   de- 
rived. 

(e)  devices  for  cheapening  the  cost  of  measur- 
ing have  been  installed. 

Under  Scientific  Management  Measurement  De- 
termines the  Task. —  An  important  aim  of  measure- 
ment under  Scientific  Management  is  to  determine 
the  Task,  or  the  standard  amount  of  any  kind  of 
work  that  a  first  class  man  can  do  in  a  certain  pe- 
riod of  time.  The  "  standard  amount "  is  the  larg- 
est amount  that  a  first  class  man  can  do  and  con- 
tinuously thrive. 

The  "  first-class  "  man  is  the  man  who  can  even- 
tually become  best  fitted,  by  means  of  natural  and  ac- 
quired capabilities,  to  do  the  work.  The  "  certain 
period  of  time  "  is  that  which  best  suits  the  work 
and  the  man's  thriving  under  the  work.  The  amount 
of  time  allowed  for  a  task  consists  of  three  parts  — 

1.  time  actually  spent  at  work. 

2.  time  for  rest  for  overcoming  fatigue. 

3.  time  for  overcoming  delays. 

Measurement  must  determine  what  percentage  of  the 
task  time  is  to  be  spent  at  work  and  what  at  rest,  and 
must  also  determine  whether  the  rest  period  should 
all  follow  the  completed  work,  or  should  be  divided 
into  parts,  these  parts  to  follow  certain  cycles  through 
the  entire  work  period. 


MEASUREMENT  99 

The  method  of  constructing  the  task  is  discussed 
under  two  chapters  that  follow,  Analysis  and  Syn- 
thesis, and  Standardization.  Here  we  note  only  that 
the  task  is  built  up  of  elementary  units  measured  by 
motion  study,  time  study,  and  micro-motion  study. 

When  this  standard  task  has  been  determined  the 
worker's  efficiency  can  be  measured  by  his  perform- 
ance of,  or  by  the  amount  that  he  exceeds,  the 
task. 

Qualifications  of  the  Observer  or  Measurer. —  The 
position  of  observer,  or  as  he  has  well  been  called, 
"  trade  revolutionizer,"  should  be  filled  by  a  man 
specially  selected  for  the  position  on  account  of  his 
special  natural  fitness  and  previous  experience.  He 
also  should  be  specially  trained  for  his  work.  As 
in  all  other  classes  of  work,  the  original  selection  of 
the  man  is  of  vital  importance.  The  natural  qualities 
of  the  successful  hunter,  fisherman,  detective,  re- 
porter and  woodsman  for  observation  of  minute  de- 
tails are  extremely  desirable.  It  is  only  by  having 
intimate  knowledge  of  such  experiences  as  Agassiz 
had  with  his  pupils,  or  with  untrained  "  observers  " 
of  the  trade,  that  one  can  realize  the  lack  of  powers 
of  observation  of  detail  in  the  average  human  be- 
ing. 

Other  natural  qualifications  required  to  an  efficient 
observer  are  that  of  being 

(a)  an  "  eye  worker  " ; 

(b)  able  to  concentrate  attention  for  unusually 
long  periods; 

(c)  able  to  get  every  thought  out  of  a  simple 
written  sentence; 


102  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

develop  a  feeling  that  if  any  new,  or  special,  data  do 
not  agree  with  the  tendency  of  the  curve  —  so  much 
the  worse  for  the  reputation  of  the  data  for  relia- 
bility. 

Observed  Worker  Should  Realize  the  Purpose  of 
the  Measurement. —  The  observed  worker  should  be 
made  to  realize  the  purpose  and  importance  of  the 
measurement.  The  observing  should  always  be  done 
with  his  full  knowledge  and  hearty  cooperation.  He 
will  attain  much  improvement  by  intelligent  coopera- 
tion with  the  observer,  and  may,  in  turn,  be  able  to 
be  promoted  to  observing  if  he  is  interested  enough 
to  study  and  prepare  himself  after  hours. 

Worker  Should  Never  Be  Observed  Surrepti- 
tiously.—  No  worker  should  ever  be  observed,  timed 
and  studied  surreptitiously.  In  the  first  place,  if  the 
worker  does  not  know  that  he  is  being  observed,  he 
cannot  cooperate  with  the  observer  to  see  that  the 
methods  observed  are  methods  of  least  waste. 
Therefore  the  motion  study  and  time  study  records 
that  result  will  not  be  fundamental  standards  in  any 
case  and  will  probably  be  worthless. 

In  the  second  place,  if  the  worker  discovers  that 
he  is  being  observed  secretly,  he  will  feel  that  he  is 
being  spied  upon  and  is  not  being  treated  fairly. 
The  stop  watch  has  too  long  been  associated  with 
the  idea  of  "  taking  the  last  drop  of  blood  from  the 
worker."  Secret  observations  will  tend  strongly  to 
lend  credence  to  this  idea.  Even  should  the  worker 
thus  observed  not  think  that  he  was  being  watched 
in  order  to  force  him,  at  a  later  time,  to  make  higher 
outputs,  after  he  has  once  learned  that  he  is  being 


MEASUREMENT  103 

watched  secretly,  his  attention  will  constantly  be 
distracted  by  the  thought  that  perhaps  he  is  being 
studied  and  timed  again.  He  will  be  constantly  on 
the  alert  to  see  possible  observers.  This  may  result 
in  "  speeding  him  up,"  but  the  speed  will  not  be  a 
legitimate  speed,  that  results  to  his  good  as  well  as 
to  that  of  his  employer. 

Worst  of  all,  he  will  lose  confidence  in  the  "  square- 
ness "  of  his  employer.  Hence  he  will  fail  to  co- 
operate, and  one  of  the  greatest  advantages  of  Scien- 
tific Management  will  thus  be  lost. 

It  is  a  great  advantage  of  micro-motion  study  that 
it  demands  cooperation  of  the  man  studied,  and  that 
its  results  are  open  to  study  by  all. 

An  Expert  Best  Worker  to  Observe. —  The  best 
worker  to  observe  for  time  study  is  he  who  is  so 
skilled  that  he  can  perform  a  cycle  of  prescribed  stand- 
ard motions  automatically,  without  mental  concen- 
tration. This  enables  him  to  devote  his  entire 
mental  activity  to  deviating  the  one  desired  variable 
from  the  accepted  cycle  of  motions. 

The  difficulty  in  motion  study  and  time  study  is 
not  so  often  to  vary  the  variable  being  observed  and 
studied,  as  it  is  to  maintain  the  other  variables  con- 
stant. Neither  skill  nor  appreciation  of  what  is 
wanted  is  enough  alone.  The  worker  who  is  to  be 
measured  successfullly  must 

1.  have  the  required  skill. 

2.  understand  the  theory  of  what  is  being  done. 

3.  be  willing  to  cooperate. 

Everyone  Should  Be  Trained  in  Being  Measured. — . 
Accurate  measurement  of  individuals,  in  actual  prac- 


104  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

tice,  brings  out  the  fact  that  lamentably  few  persons 
are  accustomed  to  be,  or  can  readily  be,  measured. 
It  has  been  a  great  drawback  to  the  advance  of  Scien- 
tific Management  that  the  moment  a  measurer  of  any 
kind  is  put  on  the  work,  either  a  device  to  measure 
output  or  a  man  to  measure  or  to  time  reactions,  mo- 
tions, or  output,  the  majority  of  the  workers  become 
suspicious.  Being  unaccustomed  to  being  measured, 
they  think,  as  is  usually  the  case  with  things  to  which 
we  are  unaccustomed,  that  there  is  something  harm- 
ful to  them  in  it.  This  feeling  makes  necessary 
much  explanation  which  in  reality  should  not  be 
needed. 

The  remedy  for  this  condition  is  a  proper  training 
in  youth.  A  boy  brought  up  with  the  fundamental 
idea  of  the  importance  of  measurement  to  all  mod- 
ern science,  for  all  progress,  accustomed  to  being 
measured,  understanding  the  "  why  "  of  the  measur- 
ing, and  the  results  from  it,  will  not  hesitate  or  ob- 
ject, when  he  comes  to  the  work,  to  being  measured 
in  order  that  he  may  be  put  where  it  is  best  for  him- 
self, as  well  as  for  the  work,  that  he  be  put. 

The  importance  of  human  measurement  to  voca- 
tional guidance  and  to  the  training  of  the  young  for 
life  work  has  never  been  properly  realized.  Few  peo- 
ple understand  the  importance  of  psychological  ex- 
periment as  a  factor  in  scientific  vocational  guidance. 
For  this  alone,  it  will  probably  in  time  be  a  general 
custom  to  record  and  keep  as  close  track  as  possible 
of  the  psychological  measurements  of  the  child  dur- 
ing the  period  of  education,  vocational  guidance  and 
apprenticeship.     Not  only  this,  but  he  also  should  be 


MEASUREMENT  105 

accustomed  to  being  measured,  physically  and  psy- 
chologically, from  his  first  years,  just  as  he  is  now  ac- 
customed to  being  weighed. 

The  child  should  be  taught  to  measure  himself, 
his  faculties,  his  reactions,  his  capabilities  as  con- 
pared  with  his  former  self  and  as  compared  with  the 
capabilities  of  others.  It  is  most  important  that  the 
child  should  form  a  habit  not  only  of  measuring,  but 
of  being  measured. 

Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  Are  the  Method  of 
Measurement  Under  Scientific  Management. —  Under 
Scientific  Management,  much  measuring  is  done  by 
motion  study  and  time  study,  which  measure  the  rela- 
tive efficiency  of  various  men,  of  various  methods,  or 
of  various  kinds  of  equipment,  surroundings,  tools, 
etc.  Their  most  important  use  is  as  measuring  de- 
vices of  the  men.  They  have  great  psychological 
value  in  that  they  are  founded  on  the  "  square  deal  " 
and  the  men  know  this  from  the  start.  Being 
operated  under  laws,  they  are  used  the  same  way  on 
all  sorts  of  work  and  on  all  men.  As  soon  as  the 
men  really  understand  this  fact,  and  realize 

1.  that  the  results  are  applied  to  all  men  equally; 

2.  that  all  get  an  ample  compensation  for  what 
they  do; 

3.  that  under  them  general  welfare  is  considered; 
the  objections  to  such  study  will  vanish. 

Motion  Study  Is  Determining  Methods  of  Least 
Waste. —  Motion  Study  is  the  dividing  of  the  ele- 
ments of  the  work  into  the  most  fundamental  sub- 
divisions possible ;  studying  these  fundamental  units 
separately  and  in  relation  to  one  another;  and  from 


io6  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

these  studied,  chosen  units,  when  timed,  building  up 
methods  of  least  waste. 

Time  Study  Is  Determining  Standard  Unit 
Times. —  Time  study  consists  of  timing  the  elements 
of  the  best  method  known,  and,  from  these  ele- 
mentary unit  times,  synthesizing  a  standard  time  in 
which  a  standard  man  can  do  a  certain  piece  of  work 
in  accordance  with  the  finally  accepted  method. 

Micro-motion  study  is  timing  sub-divisions,  or  ele- 
ments of  motions  by  carrying  out  the  principles  of 
motion  study  to  a  greater  degree  of  accuracy  by 
means  of  a  motion  picture  camera,  a  clock  that  will 
record  different  times  of  day  in  each  picture  of  a  mov- 
ing picture  film  together  with  a  cross  sectioned  back- 
ground and  other  devices  for  assisting  in  measuring 
the  relative  efficiency  and  wastefulness  of  motions.  It 
also  is  the  cheapest,  quickest  and  more  accurate 
method  of  recording  indisputable  time  study  records. 
It  has  the  further  advantage  of  being  most  useful  in 
assisting  the  instruction  card  man  to  devise  methods 
of  least  waste. ^^ 

Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  Measure  Individual 
Efficiency. —  Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  measure 
individual  capacity  or  efficiency  by  providing  data 
from  which  standards  can  be  made.  These  standards 
made,  the  degree  to  which  the  individual  approaches 
or  exceeds  the  standard  can  be  determined. 

Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  Measure  Meth- 
ods.—  Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  are  devices  for 
measuring  methods.  By  their  use,  old  methods  are 
"  tried  out,"  once  and  for  all,  and  their  relative  value 

^^  Industrial  Engineering,  Jan.,  191 3. 


MEASUREMENT  107 

in  efficiency,  determined.  By  their  use,  also,  new 
methods  are  "  tried  out."  This  is  most  important 
under  Scientific  Management. 

Any  new  method  suggested  can  be  tested  in  a  short 
time.  Such  elements  of  it  as  have  already  been 
tested,  can  be  valued  at  the  start,  the  new  elements 
introduced  can  be  motion  studied  and  time  studied, 
and  waste  eliminated  to  as  great  an  extent  as  pos- 
sible, with  no  loss  of  time  or  thought. 

Under  Scientific  Management,  the  men  who  under- 
stand what  motion  study  and  time  study  mean,  know 
that  their  suggested  methods  will  be  tested,  not  only 
fairly,  but  so  effectively  that  they,  and  everyone  else, 
can  know  at  once  exactly  the  worth  of  their  sug- 
gestions. 

Comparison  of  Methods  Fosters  Invention. —  The 
value  of  such  comparative  study  can  be  seen  at  a 
glance.  When  one  such  method  after  another  is 
tried  out,  not  only  can  one  tell  quickly  what  a  new 
method  is  worth,  but  can  also  determine  what  it  is 
worth  compared  to  all  others  which  have  been  con- 
sidered. This  is  because  the  study  is  a  study  of  ele- 
ments, primarily,  and  not  of  methods  as  a  whole. 
Not  only  can  suggested  methods  be  estimated,  but 
also  new  methods  which  have  never  been  suggested 
will  become  apparent  themselves  through  this  study. 
Common  elements,  being  at  once  classified  and  set 
aside,  the  new  ones  will  make  themselves  prominent, 
and  better  methods  for  doing  work  will  suggest  them- 
selves, especially  to  the  inventive  mind. 

Books  of  Preliminary  Data  Needed. —  In  order  that 
this  investigation  may  be  best  fostered,  not  only  must 


io6    THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

these  studied,  chosen  units,  when  timed,  building  up 
methods  of  least  waste. 

Time  Study  Is  Determining  Standard  Unit 
Times. —  Time  study  consists  of  timing  the  elements 
of  the  best  method  known,  and,  from  these  ele- 
mentary unit  times,  synthesizing  a  standard  time  in 
which  a  standard  man  can  do  a  certain  piece  of  work 
in  accordance  with  the  finally  accepted  method. 

Micro-motion  study  is  timing  sub-divisions,  or  ele- 
ments of  motions  by  carrying  out  the  principles  of 
motion  study  to  a  greater  degree  of  accuracy  by 
means  of  a  motion  picture  camera,  a  clock  that  will 
record  different  times  of  day  in  each  picture  of  a  mov- 
ing picture  film  together  with  a  cross  sectioned  back- 
ground and  other  devices  for  assisting  in  measuring 
the  relative  efficiency  and  wastefulness  of  motions.  It 
also  is  the  cheapest,  quickest  and  more  accurate 
method  of  recording  indisputable  time  study  records. 
It  has  the  further  advantage  of  being  most  useful  in 
assisting  the  instruction  card  man  to  devise  methods 
of  least  waste. ^^ 

Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  Measure  Individual 
Efficiency. —  Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  measure 
individual  capacity  or  efficiency  by  providing  data 
from  which  standards  can  be  made.  These  standards 
made,  the  degree  to  which  the  individual  approaches 
or  exceeds  the  standard  can  be  determined. 

Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  Measure  Meth- 
ods.—  Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  are  devices  for 
measuring  methods.  By  their  use,  old  methods  are 
"  tried  out,"  once  and  for  all,  and  their  relative  value 

^^  Industrial  Engineering,  Jan.,  1913. 


MEASUREMENT  107 

in  efficiency,  determined.  By  their  use,  also,  new 
methods  are  "  tried  out."  This  is  most  important 
under  Scientific  Management. 

Any  new  method  suggested  can  be  tested  in  a  short 
time.  Such  elements  of  it  as  have  already  been 
tested,  can  be  valued  at  the  start,  the  new  elements 
introduced  can  be  motion  studied  and  time  studied, 
and  waste  eliminated  to  as  great  an  extent  as  pos- 
sible, with  no  loss  of  time  or  thought. 

Under  Scientific  Management,  the  men  who  under- 
stand what  motion  study  and  time  study  mean,  know 
that  their  suggested  methods  will  be  tested,  not  only 
fairly,  but  so  effectively  that  they,  and  everyone  else, 
can  know  at  once  exactly  the  worth  of  their  sug- 
gestions. 

Comparison  of  Methods  Fosters  Invention. —  The 
value  of  such  comparative  study  can  be  seen  at  a 
glance.  When  one  such  method  after  another  is 
tried  out,  not  only  can  one  tell  quickly  what  a  new 
method  is  worth,  but  can  also  determine  what  it  is 
worth  compared  to  all  others  which  have  been  con- 
sidered. This  is  because  the  study  is  a  study  of  ele- 
ments, primarily,  and  not  of  methods  as  a  whole. 
Not  only  can  suggested  methods  be  estimated,  but 
also  new  methods  which  have  never  been  suggested 
will  become  apparent  themselves  through  this  study. 
Common  elements,  being  at  once  classified  and  set 
aside,  the  new  ones  will  make  themselves  prominent, 
and  better  methods  for  doing  work  will  suggest  them- 
selves, especially  to  the  inventive  mind. 

Books  of  Preliminary  Data  Needed. —  In  order  that 
this  investigation  may  be  best  fostered,  not  only  must 


lo8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

books  of  standards  be  published,  but  also  books  of 
preliminary  data,  which  other  workers  may  attack  if 
they  desire,  and  where  they  can  find  common  ele- 
ments. Such  books  of  preliminary  data  are  needed 
on  all  subjects. ^^ 

Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  Measure  Equipment 
and  Tools. —  Time  and  motion  study  are  meas- 
uring devices  for  ascertaining  relative  merits  of  differ- 
ent kinds  of  equipment,  surroundings  and  tools. 
Through  them,  the  exact  capacities  of  equipment  or 
of  a  tool  or  machine  can  be  discovered  at  once,  and 
also  the  relative  value  in  efificiency.  Also  motion 
study  and  time  study  determine  exactly  how  a  tool 
or  a  piece  of  equipment  can  best  be  used. 

In  "  On  The  Art  of  Cutting  Metals  "  Dr.  Taylor 
explains  the  effect  of  such  study  on  determining  the 
amount  of  time  that  tools  should  be  used,  the  speed 
at  which  they  should  be  used,  the  feed,  and  so  on.^^ 
This  paper  exemplifies  more  thoroughly  than  does 
anything  else  ever  written  the  value  of  Time  Study, 
and  the  scientific  manner  in  which  it  is  applied. 

The  Scope  of  Time  and  Motion  Study  Is  Un- 
limited.—  It  is  a  great  misfortune  that  the  worker 
does  not  understand,  as  he  should,  that  motion  study 
and  time  study  apply  not  only  to  his  work,  but  also 
to  the  work  of  the  managers.  In  order  to  get  re- 
sults from  the  start,  and  paying  results,  it  often  hap- 
pens that  the  work  of  the  worker  is  the  first  to  be 

^2  F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  pp.  398-391.  Harper  Ed.,  p. 
179.  Compare,  U.  S.  Bulletin  of  Agriculture  No.  208.  The  In- 
Uuence  of  Muscular  and  Mental  Work  on  Metabolism. 

13  President's  Annual  Address,  Dec,  1906.  Vol.  28,  Transactions 
A.  S.  M.  E. 


MEASUREMENT  109 

SO  studied,  but  when  Scientific  Management  is  in 
full  operation,  the  work  of  the  managers  is  studied 
exactly  to  the  same  extent,  and  set  down  exactly  as 
accurately,  as  the  work  of  the  worker  himself.  The 
worker  should  understand  this  from  the  start,  that 
he  may  become  ready  and  willing  to  cooperate. 

Detailed  Records  Necessary. —  Motion  study  and 
time  study  records  must  go  into  the  greatest  detail 
possible.  If  the  observations  are  hasty,  misdirected 
or  incomplete  they  may  be  quite  unusable  and 
necessitate  going  through  the  expensive  process  of 
observation  all  over  again.  Dr.  Taylor  has  stated 
that  during  his  earlier  experiences  he  was  obliged  to 
throw  away  a  large  quantity  of  time  study  data,  be- 
cause they  were  not  in  sufficient  detail  and  not  re- 
corded completely  enough  to  enable  him  to  use  them 
after  a  lapse  of  a  long  period  from  the  time  of  their 
first  use.  No  system  of  time  study,  and  no  individual 
piece  of  time  study,  can  be  considered  a  success  un- 
less by  its  use  at  any  time,  when  new,  or  after  a 
lapse  of  years,  an  accurate  prediction  of  the  amount 
of  work  a  man  can  do  can  be  made. 

All  results  attained  should  invariably  be  preserved, 
whether  they  appear  at  the  moment  to,  be  useful  or 
valuable  or  not.  In  time  study  in  the  past  it  has 
been  found,  as  in  the  investigations  of  all  other 
sciences,  that  apparently  unimportant  details  of  to- 
day are  of  vital  importance  years  after,  as  a  neces- 
sary step  to  attain,  or  further  proof  of  a  discovery. 
This  was  exemplified  in  the  case  of  the  shoveling 
experiment  of  Dr.  Taylor.  The  laws  came  from 
what  was  considered  the  unimportant  portion  of  the 


112  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MAN4GEMENT 

■%. 

dom  realized.^^  Where  possible,  several  units  of 
measurements  should  be  used  to  check  each  other." 
One  alone  may  be  misleading,  or  put  an  incentive  on 
the  workers  to  give  an  undesirable  result. 

The  rule  is, —  always  select  that  unit  of  output  that 
will,  of  itself,  cause  a  reduction  in  costs. 

For  example :  —  In  measuring  the  output  of  a  con- 
crete gang,  counting  cement  bags  provides  an  incen- 
tive to  use  more  cement  than  the  instruction  card  calls 
for.  Counting  the  batches  of  concrete  dumped  out 
of  the  mixer,  provides  an  incentive  to  use  rather 
smaller  quantities  of  broken  stone  and  sand  than  the 
proportions  call  for, —  and,  furthermore,  does  not  put 
the  incentive  on  the  men  to  spill  no  concrete  in  trans- 
portation, neither  does  it  put  an  incentive  to  use  more 
lumps  for  Cyclopean  concrete. 

Measuring  the  quantity  actually  placed  in  the  forms 
puts  no  incentive  to  watch  bulging  forms  closely. 

While  measuring  outputs  by  all  these  different  units 
of  measurements  would  be  valuable  to  check  up  ac- 
curacy of  proportions,  accuracy  of  stores  account,  and 
output  records,  the  most  important  unit  of  measure- 
ment for  selection  would  be,  "  cubic  feet  of  forms 
filled,"  the  general  dimensions  to  be  taken  from  the 
latest  revised  engineer's  drawings. 

Necessity  for  Checking  Errors. —  Dr.  Stratton  says, 
— "  No  measurements,  whether  they  be  psychic  or 
physical,  are  exact  beyond  a  certain  point,  and  the 
art  of  using  them  consists  largely  in  checks  and 
counter  checks,  and  in  knowing  how  far  the  measure- 

16  F.  W.  Taylor,  Vol.  28,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Paper  11 19,  para.  68. 
1'^  Hugo  Miinsterberg,  American  Problems,  p.  2)7' 


MEASUREMENT  JI3 

ment  is  reliable  and  where  the  doubtful  zone  be- 
gins." 18 

Capt.  Metcalfe  says, — "Errors  of  observation  may- 
be divided  into  two  general  classes;  the  instrumental 
and  those  due  to  the  personal  bias  of  the  observer; 
the  former  referring  to  the  standard  itself,  and  the 
latter  to  the  application  of  the  standard  and  the  record 
of  the  measurement."  i* 

The  concrete  illustration  given  above  is  an  example 
of  careful  checking  up.  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment so  many,  and  such  careful  records  are  kept  that 
detecting  errors  becomes  part  of  the  daily  routine. 

SUMMARY 

Results  of  Measurement  to  the  Work. —  Under 
Traditional  Management,  even  the  crudest  measure- 
ment of  output  and  cost  usually  resulted  in  an  in- 
crease in  output.  But  there  was  no  accuracy  of  meas- 
urement of  individual  efficiency,  nor  was  there  pro- 
vision made  to  conserve  results  and  make  them  per- 
manently useful. 

Under  Transitory  Management  and  measurement 
of  individual  output,  output  increased  and  rewards  for 
the  higher  output  kept  up  the  standard. 

Under  Scientific  Management  Better  Methods  and 
Better  Work  Results. —  Under  Scientific  Measure- 
ment, measurement  of  the  work  itself  determines 

1.  what  kind  of  workers  are  needed. 

2.  how  many  workers  are  needed. 

3.  how  best  to  use  them. 

18  G.  M.   Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  p.  59. 

19  Henry  Metcalfe,  Cost  of  Manufactures. 


114  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  measurement, — 

1.  divide  the  work  into  units. 

2.  measure  each  unit. 

3.  study  the  variables,  or  elements,  one  at  a  time. 

4.  furnish  resulting  timed  elements  to  the  syn- 
thesizer of  methods  of  least  waste. 

Accurate  Measuring  Devices  Prevent  Breakdowns 
and  Accidents. —  The  accurate  measuring  devices 
which  accomplish  measurement  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement prevent  breakdowns  and  accidents  to  life 
and  limb. 

For  example.  — 

1.  The  maintained  tension  on  a  belt  bears  a  close 
relation  to  its  delay  periods. 

2.  The  speed  of  a  buzz  planer  determines  its  lia- 
bility to  shoot  out  pieces  of  wood  to  the  injury  of  its 
operator,  or  to  injure  bystanders. 

Scientific  Management,  by  determining  and  stand- 
ardizing methods  and  equipment  both,  provides  for 
uninterrupted  output. 

Effect  on  the  Worker. —  Under  Traditional  Man- 
agement there  is  not  enough  accurate  measurement 
done  to  make  its  effect  on  the  worker  of  much  value. 

Under  Transitory  Management,  as  soon  as  indi- 
vidual outputs  are  measured,  the  worker  takes  more 
interest  in  his  work,  and  endeavors  to  increase  his 
output. 

Under  Scientific  Management  measurement  of  the 
worker  tells 

1.  what  the  workers  are  capable  of  doing. 

2.  what  function  it  will  be  best  to  assign  them  to 
and  to  cultivate  in  them. 


MEASUREMENT  WS 

Waste   Eliminated  by  Accurate   Measurement. — 

This  accurate  measurement  increases  the  worker's 
efficiency  in  that  it  enables  him  to  eliminate  waste. 
"  Cut  and  try  "  methods  are  eliminated.  There  is  no 
need  to  test  a  dozen  methods,  a  dozen  men,  a  dozen 
systems  of  routing,  or  various  kinds  of  equipment 
more  than  once, —  that  one  time  when  they  are  scien- 
tifically tried  out  and  measured.  This  accurate  meas- 
urement also  eliminates  disputes  between  manager 
and  worker  as  to  what  the  latter's  efficiency  is. 

Efficiency  Measured  by  Time  and  Motion  Study. — 
Time  and  Motion  Study. 

(a)  measure  the  man  by  his  work;  that  is,  by  the 
results  of  his  activities; 

(b)  measure  him  by  his  methods; 

(c)  measure  him  by  his  capacity  to  learn; 

(d)  measure  him  by  his  capacity  to  teach. 
Now  measurement  by  result  alone  is  very  stimulat- 
ing to  increasing  activities,  especially  when  it  shows, 
as  it  does  under  Scientific  Management,  the  relative 
results  of  various  people  doing  the  same  kind  of  work. 
But  it  does  not,  itself,  show  the  worker  how  to  ob- 
tain greater  results  without  putting  on  more  speed  or 
using  up  more  activities.  But  when  the  worker's 
methods  are  measured,  he  begins  to  see,  for  himself, 
exactly  why  and  where  he  has  failed. 

*  Scientific  Management  provides  for  him  to  be 
taught,  and  the  fact  that  he  sees  through  the  meas- 
urements exactly  what  he  needs  to  be  taught  will 
make  him  glad  to  have  the  teacher  come  and  show 
him  how  to  do  better.  Through  this  teaching,  its  re- 
sults, and  the  speed  with  which  the  results  come,  the 


Ii6  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

workers  and  the  managers  can  see  how  fast  the 
worker  is  capable  of  learning,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  worker,  the  teacher  and  the  managers  can  see  in 
how  far  the  foreman  is  capable  of  instructing. 

Final  Outcome  Beneficial  to  Managers  and  Men. — 
Through  measurement  in  Scientific  Management, 
managers  acquire  — 

1.  abiHty  to  select  men,  methods,  equipment,  etc.; 

2.  ability  to  assign  men  to  the  work  which  they 
should  do,  to  prescribe  the  method  which  they  shall 
use,  and  to  reward  them  for  their  output  suitably; 

3.  ability  to  predict.  On  this  ability  to  predict 
rests  the  possibility  of  making  calendars,  chronolog- 
ical charts  and  schedules,  and  of  planning  determin- 
ing sequence  of  events,  etc.,  which  will  be  discussed 
at  length  later. 

Ability  to  predict  allows  the  managers  to  state 
"  premature  truths,"  which  the  records  show  to  be 
truths  when  the  work  has  been  done. 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  managers  are 
enabled  not  only  to  predict  what  the  men,  equipment, 
machinery,  etc.,  will  do,  but  what  they  can  do  them- 
selves. 

The  Effect  on  the  Men  Is  That  the  Worker  Co- 
operates.—  I.  The  worker's  interest  is  held.  The  men 
know  that  the  methods  they  are  using  are  the  best. 
The  exact  measurements  of  efficiency  of  the  learner, 
—  and  under  Scientific  Management  a  man  never 
ceases  to  be  a  learner, —  give  him  a  continued  in- 
terest in  his  work.  It  is  impossible  to  hold  the  at- 
tention of  the  intelligent  worker  to  a  method  or  proc- 


MEASUREMENT  117 

ess  that  he  does  not  believe  to  be  the  most  efficient 
and  least  wasteful. 

Motion  study  and  time  study  are  the  most  efficient 
measuring  device  of  the  relative  qualities  of  differ- 
ing methods.  They  furnish  definite  and  exact  proof 
to  the  w^orker  as  to  the  excellence  of  the  method  that 
he  is  told  to  use.  When  he  is  convinced,  lack  of  in- 
terest due  to  his  doubts  and  dissatisfaction  is  re- 
moved. 

2.  The  worker's  judgment  Is  appealed  to.  The 
method  that  he  uses  is  the  outcome  of  cooperation 
between  him  and  the  management.  His  own  judg- 
ment assures  him  that  it  is  the  best,  up  to  that  time, 
that  they,  working  together,  have  been  able  to  dis- 
cover. 

3.  The  worker's  reasoning  powers  are  developed. 
Continuous  judging  of  records  of  efficiency  develops 
high  class,  well  developed  reasoning  powers. 

4.  The  worker  fits  his  task,  therefore  there  is  no 
need  of  adjustment,  and  his  attitude  toward  his  work 
is  right. 

5.  There  is  elimination  of  soldiering,  both  natural 
and  systematic.^" 

All  Knowledge  Becomes  the  Knowledge  of  All. — 
Two  outcomes  may  be  confidently  expected  In  the 
future,  as  they  are  already  becoming  apparent  where- 
ever  Scientific  Management  is  being  introduced: 

I.  The  worker  will  become  more  and  more  will- 

20  F,  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  46.  Harper  Ed.,  p.  30. 
F.  W.  Taylor,  A  Piece  Rate  System,  Paper  647,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  para. 
22. 


ii8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ing  to  impart  his  kiiowledge  to  others.  When  the 
worker  reahzes  that  passing  on  his  trade  secrets  will 
not  cause  him  to  lose  his  position  or,  by  raising  up 
a  crowd  of  competitors,  lower  his  wages,  but  will,  on 
the  contrary,  increase  his  wages  and  chances  of  pro- 
motion, he  is  ready  and  willing  to  have  his  excellent 
methods  standardized. 

Desire  to  keep  one's  own  secret,  or  one's  own 
method  a  secret  is  a  very  natural  one.  It  stimulates 
interest,  it  stimulates  pride.  It  is  only  when,  as  in 
Scientific  Management,  the  possessor  of  such  a  secret 
may  receive  just  compensation,  recognition  and 
honor  for  his  skill,  and  receive  a  position  where  he 
can  become  an  appreciated  teacher  of  others  that  he 
is,  or  should  be,  willing  to  give  up  this  secret.  Scien- 
tific Management,  however,  provides  this  opportunity 
for  him  to  teach,  provides  that  he  receives  credit  for 
what  he  has  done,  and  receive  that  publicity  and 
fame  which  is  his  due,  and  which  will  give  him  the 
same  stimulus  to  work  which  the  knowledge  that 
he  had  a  secret  skill  gave  him  in  the  past. 

One  method  of  securing  this  publicity  is  by  nam- 
ing the  device  or  method  after  its  inventor.  This  has 
been  found  to  be  successful  not  only  in  satisfying 
the  inventor,  but  in  stimulating  others  to  invent. 

Measurement  of  Individual  Efficiency  Will  Be  En- 
dorsed by  All. —  2.  The  worker  will,  ultimately,  real- 
ize that  it  is  for  the  good  of  all,  as  well  as  for  himself, 
that  individual  efficiency  be  measured  and  rewarded. 

It  has  been  advanced  as  an  argument  against  meas- 
urement that  it  discriminates  against  the  "  weaker 
brother,"  who  should  have  a  right  to  obtain  the  same 


MEASUREMENT  iigi 

pay  as  the  stronger,  for  the  reason  that  he  has  equal 
needs  for  this  pay  to  maintain  life  and  for  the  sup- 
port of  his  family. 

Putting  aside  at  the  moment  the  emotional  side 
of  this  argument,  which  is  undoubtedly  a  strong 
side  and  a  side  worthy  of  consideration,  with  much 
truth  in  it,  and  looking  solely  at  the  logical  side, — 
it  cannot  do  the  "  weaker  "  brother  any  good  in  the 
long  run,  and  it  does  the  world  much  harm,  to  have 
his  work  overestimated.  The  day  is  coming,  when 
the  world  will  demand  that  the  quantity  of  the  day's 
work  shall  be  measured  as  accurately  where  one  sells 
labor,  as  where  one  sells  sugar  or  flour.  Then,  pre- 
tending that  one's  output  is  greater  than  it  really  is 
will  be  classed  with  "  divers  weights  and  divers 
measures,"  with  their  false  standards.  The  day 
will  come  when  the  public  will  insist  that  the 
"  weaker  brother's  "  output  be  measured  to  deter- 
mine just  how  weak  he  is,  and  whether  it  is  weakness, 
unfitness  for  that  particular  job,  or  laziness  that  is  the 
cause  of  his  output  being  low.  When  he  reaches  a 
certain  degree  of  weakness,  he  will  be  assisted  with  a 
definite  measured  quantity  of  assistance.  Thus  the 
"  weaker  brother  "  may  be  readily  distinguished  from 
the  lazy,  strong  brother,  and  the  brother  who  is 
working  at  the  wrong  job.  Measurement  should 
certainly  be  insisted  on,  In  order  to  determine 
whether  these  strong  brothers  are  doing  their  full 
share,  or  whether  they  are  causing  the  weaker 
brothers  to  over-exert  themselves. 

No  one  who  has  investigated  the  subject  properly 
can  doubt  that  it  will  be  better  for  the  world  in  gen- 


120  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

eral  to  have  each  man's  output,  weak  and  strong, 
properly  measured  and  estimated  regardless  of 
whether  the  weak  and  strong  are  or  are  not  paid  the 
same  wages.  The  reason  why  the  unions  have  had 
to  insist  that  the  work  shall  not  be  measured 
and  that  the  weaker  brother's  weakness  shall  not 
be  realized  is,  that  in  the  industrial  world  the 
only  brotherhood  that  was  recognized  was  the 
brotherhood  between  the  workers,  there  being  a 
distinct  antagonism  between  the  worker  and  the 
manager  and  little  or  no  brotherhood  of  the  public 
at  large.  When  Scientific  Management  does  away, 
as  it  surely  will,  with  this  antagonism,  by  reason  of 
the  cooperation  which  is  its  fundamental  idea,  then 
the  workers  will  show  themselves  glad  to  be  meas- 
ured. 

As  for  the  "  weaker  "  brother  idea,  it  is  a  natural 
result  of  such  ill  treatment.  It  has  become  such  a 
far-reaching  emotion  that  even  Scientific  Manage- 
ment, with  its  remedy  for  many  ills,  cannot  expect  in 
a  moment,  or  in  a  few  years,  to  alter  the  emotional 
bias  of  the  multitudes  of  people  who  have  held  it  for 
good  and  sufficient  reasons  for  generations. 

The  Government  Should  Conserve  Measurement 
Data. —  The  one  thing  which  can  permanently  alter 
this  feeling  forms  the  natural  conclusion  to  this  chap- 
ter. That  is,  measurements  in  general  and  motion 
study  and  time  study  in  particular  must  become  a 
matter  of  government  investigation.  When  the  gov- 
ernment has  taken  over  the  investigation  and  estab- 
lished a  bureau  where  such  data  as  Scientific  Manage- 
ment discovers  is  collected  and  kept  on  file  for  all  who 


MEASUREMENT  121 

will  to  use,  then  the  possessor  of  the  secret  will  feel 
that  it  can  safely  place  the  welfare  of  its  "  weaker 
brothers"  in  the  hands  of  a  body  which  is  founded 
and  operates  on  the  idea  of  the  "  square  deal." 

Appreciation  of  Time  Study  by  Workers  the  First 
Step. —  The  first  step  of  the  workers  in  this  direction 
must  be  the  appreciation  of  time  study,  for  on  time 
study  hangs  the  entire  subject  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment. It  is  this  great  discovery  by  Dr.  Taylor  that 
makes  the  elimination  of  waste  possible.  It  has 
come  to  stay.  Many  labor  leaders  are  opposed  to  it, 
but  the  wise  thing  for  them  to  do  is  to  study,  foster 
and  cultivate  it.  They  cannot  stop  its  progress. 
There  is  no  thing  that  can  stop  it.  The  modern 
managers  will  obtain  it,  and  the  only  way  to  prevent 
it  from  being  used  by  unscrupulous  managers  is  for 
the  workman  also  to  learn  the  facts  of  time  study.  It 
is  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  workers  of  the 
country,  for  their  own  protection,  that  they  be  as 
familiar  with  time  study  data  as  the  managers  are. 
Time  study  is  the  foundation  and  frame  work  of  rate 
setting  and  fixing,  and  certainly  the  subject  of  rate 
fixing  is  the  most  important  subject  there  is  to  the 
workmen,  whether  they  are  working  on  day  work, 
piece  work,  premium,  differential  rate  piece,  task 
with  bonus,  or  three-rate  system. 

Dr.  Taylor  has  proved  by  time  study  that  many  of 
the  customary  working  days  are  too  long,  that  the 
same  amount  of  output  can  be  achieved  in  fewer 
hours  per  day.  Time  study  affords  the  means  for 
the  only  scientific  proof  that  many  trades  fatigue 
the   workers   beyond   their   endurance    and   strength. 


122  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Time  study  is  the  one  means  by  which  the  workers 
can  prove  the  real  facts  of  their  unfortunate  condi- 
tion under  the  Traditional  plan  of  management. 

The  workers  of  the  country  should  be  the  very 
ones  that  should  insist  upon  the  government  tak- 
ing the  matter  in  hand  for  scientific  investigation. 
Knowledge  is  power, —  a  rule  with  no  exception,  and 
the  knowledge  of  scientific  time  study  would  pre- 
pare the  workers  of  any  trade,  and  would  provide 
their  intelligent  leaders  with  data  for  accurate  de- 
cisions for  legislation  and  other  steps  for  their  best 
interests.  The  national  bodies  should  hire  experts 
to  represent  them  and  to  cooperate  with  the  govern- 
ment bureau  in  applying  science  to  their  life  work. 

The  day  is  fast  approaching  when  makers  of  ma- 
chinery will  have  the  best  method  of  operating  their 
machines  micro-motion  studied  and  cyclegraphed  and 
description  of  methods  of  operation  in  accordance 
with  such  records  will  be  everywhere  considered  as 
a  part  of  the  "  makers'  directions  for  using." 

Furthermore  associations  of  manufacturers  will 
establish  laboratories  for  determining  methods  of  least 
waste  by  means  of  motion  study,  time  study  and 
micro-motion  study,  and  the  findings  of  such  labora- 
tories will  be  put  in  standardized  shape  for  use  by  all 
its  members.  The  trend  today  shows  that  soon  there 
will  be  hundreds  of  books  of  time  study  tables.  The 
government  must  sooner  or  later  save  the  waste  re- 
sulting from  this  useless  duplication  of  efforts. 


CHAPTER  V 
ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS 

Definition  of  Analysis. — "Analysis,"  says  the  Cen- 
tury Dictionary  is  "  the  resolution  or  separation  of 
anything  which  is  compound,  as  a  conception,  a  sen- 
tence, a  material  substance  or  an  event,  into  its  con- 
stituent elements  or  into  its  causes ;  "  that  is  to  say, 
analysis  is  the  division  of  the  thing  under  considera- 
tion into  its  definite  cause,  and  into  its  definite  parts 
or  elements,  and  the  explanation  of  the  principle 
upon  which  such  division  is  made.^ 

Definition  of  Synthesis. — "  Synthesis  "  is,  "  a  put- 
ting of  two  or  more  things  together;  composition; 
specifically,  the  combination  of  separate  elements  or 
objects  of  thought  into  a  whole,  as  of  simple  into 
compound  or  complex  conceptions,  and  individual 
propositions  into  a  system." 

Use  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis  by  Psychology. — 
Analysis  is  defined  by  Sully  as  follows :  "  Analysis  " 
is  "  taking  apart  more  complex  processes  in  order  to 
single  out  for  special  inspection  their  several  con- 
stituent processes." 

He  divides  elements  of  thought  activity  into  two 

"(a)  analysis:     abstraction 
(b)   synthesis:     comparison." 

1  Compare  Mechanical  Analysis.  Taylor  and  Thompson,  Concrete, 
Plain  and  Reinforced,  p.  193. 

123 


124  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Speaking  of  the  latter,  he  says,  "  The  clear  explicit 
detachment  in  thought  of  the  common  elements 
which  comparison  secures  allows  of  a  new  recon- 
structive synthesis  of  things  as  made  up  of  par- 
ticular groupings  of  a  number  of  general  qualities," 

Place  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis  in  Management. — 
Any  study  of  management  which  aims  to  prove  that 
management  may  be,  and  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is,  a  science,  must  investigate  its  use  of  analysis 
and  of  synthesis.^  Upon  the  degree  and  perfection 
of  the  analysis  depends  the  permanent  value  and  use- 
fulness of  the  knowledge  gained.  Upon  the  syn- 
thesis, and  what  it  includes  and  excludes,  depends  the 
efHciency  of  the  results  deduced. 

Little  Analysis  or  Synthesis  Under  Traditional 
Management. —  Under  Traditional  Management 
analysis  and  synthesis  are  so  seldom  present  as  to 
be  negligible.  Success  or  failure  are  seldom  if 
ever  so  studied  and  measured  that  the  causes  are 
well  understood.  Therefore,  no  standards  for  fu- 
ture work  that  are  of  any  value  can  be  established. 
It  need  only  be  added  that  one  reason  why  Tra- 
ditional Management  makes  so  little  progress  is  be- 
cause it  makes  no  analyses  that  are  of  perma- 
nent value.  What  data  it  has  are  available  for  im- 
mediate use  only.  Practically  every  man  who 
does  the  work  must  "  start  at  the  beginning,"  for 
himself.  If  this  is  often  true  of  entire  methods,  it 
is  even  more  true  of  elements  of  methods.  As  ele- 
ments are  not  studied  and  recorded  separately,  they 
are  not  recognized  when  they  appear  again,  and  the 
2H.  LeChatelier,  Discussion  of  Paper  1119,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  p.  303, 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  125 

resultant  waste  is  appalling.  This  waste  is  inevitable 
with  the  lack  of  cooperation  under  Traditional  Man- 
agement and  the  fact  that  each  worker  plans  the 
greater  part  of  his  work  for  himself. 

Analysis  and  Synthesis  Appear  Late  in  Transitory 
Management. —  Division  of  output  appears  early  in 
Transitory  Management,  but  it  is  usually  not  until 
a  late  stage  that  motion  study  and  time  study  are 
conducted  so  successfully  that  scientifically  deter- 
mined and  timed  elements  can  be  constructed  into 
standards.  As  everything  that  is  attempted  in  the 
line  of  analysis  and  synthesis  under  Transitory  Man- 
agement is  done  scientifically  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement, we  may  avoid  repetition  by  considering 
Scientific  Management  at  once. 

Relation  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis  in  Scientific 
Management  to  Measurement  and  Standardization. — 
Analysis  considers  the  subject  that  is  to  be  measured, 
—  be  it  individual  action  or  output  of  any  kind, — 
and  divides  it  into  such  a  number  of  parts,  and  parts 
of  such  a  nature,  as  will  best  suit  the  purpose  for 
which  the  measurement  is  taken.  When  these  sub- 
divisions have  been  measured,  synthesis  combines 
them  into  a  whole. ^  Under  Scientific  Management, 
through  the  measurements  used,  synthesis  is  a  com- 
bination of  those  elements  which  are  necessary  only, 
and  which  have  been  proven  to  be  most  efficient. 
The  result  of  the  synthesis  is  standardized,  and  used 
until  a  more  accurate  standard  displaces  it. 

Under  Scientific  Management  analysis  and  syn- 
thesis  are   methods    of   determining   standards   from 

•2  H.  L.  Gantt,  Work,  Wages  and  Profits,  p.  35. 


126  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

available  knowledge.  Measurement  furnishes  the 
means. 

Analyst's  Work  Is  Division. —  It  is  the  duty  of  the 
analyst  to  divide  the  work  that  he  is  set  to  study  into 
the  minutest  divisions  possible.  What  is  possible  is 
determined  b}^  the  time  and  money  that  can  be  set 
aside  for  the  investigation. 

The  Nature  of  the  Work  Must  Determine  the 
Amount  of  Analysis  Practicable. —  In  determining 
the  amount  of  time  and  money  required,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  consider  — 

1.  the  cost  of  the  work  if  done  with  no  special 
study. 

2.  how  many  times  the  work  is  likely  to  be  re- 
peated. 

3.  how  many  elements  that  it  contains  are  likely 
to  be  similar  to  elements  in  work  that  has  already 
been  studied. 

4.  how  many  new  elements  that  it  contains  are 
likely  to  be  available  in  subsequent  work. 

5.  the  probable  cost  of  the  work  after  it  has  been 
studied  — 

(a)  the  cost  of  doing  it. 

(b)  the  cost  of  the  investigation. 

6.  The  loss,  if  any,  from  delaying  the  work  until 
after  it  has  been  studied. 

7.  the  availability  of  trained  observers  and  meas- 
urers, analysts  and  synthesists. 

8.  the  available  money  for  carrying  on  the  in- 
vestigations. 

These  questions  at  least  must  be  answered  before 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  lay 

it  is  possible  to  decide  whether  study  shall  be  made 
or  not,  and  to  what  degree  it  can  be  carried. 

Cost  the  Determining  Factor. —  It  is  obvious  that 
in  all  observation  in  the  industrial  world  cost  must 
be  the  principal  determining  feature.  Once  the  cost 
can  be  estimated,  and  the  amount  of  money  that  can 
be  allowed  for  the  investigation  determined,  it  is  pos- 
sible at  least  to  approximate  satisfactory  answers  to 
the  other  questions.  How  closely  the  answers  ap- 
proximate depends  largely  on  the  skill  and  experience 
of  the  analyst. 

The  greater  number  of  times  the  work  is  to  be  re- 
peated, the  less  the  ultimate  cost.  The  more  ele- 
ments contained  similar  to  elements  already  deter- 
mined, the  less  the  additional  cost,  and  the  less  the 
time  necessary.  The  more  elements  contained  that 
can  be  used  again,  even  in  different  work,  the  less  the 
ultimate  cost.  The  better  trained  the  analyst,  the 
less  the  immediate  or  additional  cost  and  time. 

Much  depends  on  the  amount  of  previous  data  at 
hand  when  the  investigation  is  being  made,  and  on 
the  skill  and  speed  of  the  analyst  in  using  these  data. 

Process  of  Division  Unending. —  In  practice,  the 
process  of  division  continues  as  long  as  it  can  show 
itself  to  be  a  method  for  cost  reducing.  Work  may 
be  divided  into  processes :  each  process  into  subdi- 
visions; each  subdivision  into  cycles;  each  cycle  into 
elements;  each  element  into  time  units;  each  time 
unit  into  motions, —  and  so  on,  indefinitely,  toward 
the  "  indivisible  minimum."  ^ 

*F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Cost  Reducing  System. 


128  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Measuring  May  Take  Place  at  Any  Stage. —  At 

any  of  these  stages  of  division  the  results  may  be 
taken  as  final  for  the  purpose  of  the  study, —  and  the 
operations,  or  final  divisions  of  the  work  at  that  stage, 
may  be  measured. 

To  obtain  results  with  the  least  expenditure  of 
time,  the  operations  must  be  subjected  to  motion 
study  before  they  are  timed  as  well  as  after.  This 
motion  study  can  be  accurate  and  of  permanent  value 
only  in  so  far  as  the  divisions  are  final.  The  result- 
ing improved  operations  are  then  ready  to  be  timed. 

Ultimate  Analysis  the  Field  of  Psychology. — 
When  the  analyst  has  proceeded  as  far  as  he  can  in 
dividing  the  work  into  prime  factors  the  problem 
continues  in  the  field  of  psychology.  Here  the  op- 
portunities for  securing  further  data  become  almost 
limitless. 

Ultimate  Analysis  Justifiable. —  It  is  the  justifica- 
tion for  analysis  to  approach  the  ultimate  as  nearly 
as  possible,  that  the  smaller  and  more  difficult  of 
measurement  the  division  is,  the  more  often  it  will 
appear  in  various  combinations  of  elements.  The 
permanence  and  exactness  of  the  result  vary  with  the 
effort  for  obtaining  it. 

Qualifications  of  an  Analyst. —  To  be  most  suc- 
cessful, an  analyst  should  have  ingenuity,  patience, 
and  that  love  of  dividing  a  process  into  its  component 
parts  and  studying  each  separate  part  that  character- 
izes the  analytic  mind.  The  analyst  must  be  ca- 
pable of  doing  accurate  work,  and  orderly  work. 

To  get  the  most  pleasure  and  profit  from  his  work 
he  should  realize  that  his  great,  underlying  purpose 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  lag 

is  to  relieve  the  worker  of  unnecessary  fatigue,  to 
shorten  his  work  period  per  day,  and  to  increase  the 
number  of  his  days  and  years  of  higher  earning 
power.  With  this  reaHzation  will  come  an  added  in- 
terest in  his  subject. 

Worker  Should  Understand  the  Process  of 
Analysis. —  It  is  not  enough  that  the  worker  should 
understand  the  methods  of  measurement.  He  can 
get  most  from  the  resultant  standards  and  will  most 
efficiently  cooperate  if  he  understands  the  division 
into  elements  to  be  studied. 

Schools  Should  Provide  Training. —  Much  of  the 
training  in  analysis  in  the  schools  comes  at  such  a 
late  period  of  the  course  that  the  average  industrial 
worker  must  miss  a  large  part  of  it.  This  is  a  de- 
fect in  school  training  that  should  be  remedied. 
Even  very  young  children  soon  are  capable  of,  and 
greatly  enjoy,  dividing  a  process  into  elements.  If 
the  worker  be  taught,  in  his  preparations,  and  in  the 
work  itself,  to  divide  what  he  does  into  its  elements, 
he  will  not  only  enjoy  analysis  of  his  work,  but  will 
be  able  to  follow  the  analysis  in  his  own  mind,  and 
to  cooperate  better  in  the  processes  of  measurement. 

The  Synthesist's  Work  Is  Selection  and  Addition. — 
The  synthesist  studies  the  individual  results  of  the 
analyst's  work,  and  their  inter-relation,  and  deter- 
mines which  of  these  should  be  combined,  and  in 
what  manner,  for  the  most  economic  result.  His 
duty  is  to  construct  that  combination  of  the  elements 
which  will  be  most  efficient. 

Importance  of  Selection  Must  Be  Emphasized. — 
If  synthesis  in  Scientific  Management  were  nothing 


130  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

more  than  combining  all  the  elements  that  result 
from  analysis  into  a  whole,  it  would  be  valuable. 
Any  process  studied  analytically  will  be  performed 
more  intelligently,  even  if  there  is  no  change  in  the 
method. 

But  the  most  important  part  of  the  synthesist's 
work  is  the  actual  elimination  of  elements  which  are 
useless,  and  the  combination  of  the  remaining  ele- 
ments in  such  a  way,  or  sequence,  or  schedule,  that 
a  far  better  method  than  the  one  analyzed  will  re- 
sult. 

We  may  take  an  example  from  Bricklaying.^  In 
"  Stringing  Mortar  Method,  on  the  Filling  Tiers  be- 
fore the  Days  of  the  Pack-on-the- Wall-Method  " — 
the  division,  which  was  into  operations  only,  showed 
eighteen  operations  and  eighteen  motions  for  every 
brick  that  was  laid.  Study  and  synthesis  of  these 
elements  resulted  in  a  method  that  required  only  i% 
motions  to  lay  a  brick.  Over  half  the  original  mo- 
tions were  found  to  be  useless,  hence  entirely  omitted. 
In  several  other  cases  it  was  found  possible  to  make 
one  motion  do  work  for  two  or  four  brick,  with  the 
same,  or  less,  fatigue  to  the  worker. 

Result  Is  the  Basis  for  the  Task. —  The  result  of 
synthesis  is  the  basis  for  the  task, —  it  becomes  the 
standard  that  shows  what  has  actually  been  done,  and 
what  can  be  expected  to  be  repeated.  It  is  important 
to  note  the  relation  between  the  task  and  synthesis. 
When  it  becomes  generally  understood  that  the 
"  Task,"  under  Scientific  Management  is  neither  an 
ideal  which  exists  simply  in  the  imagination,  nor  an 

^F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Bricklaying  System,  p.  151. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  131 

impossibly  high  estimate  of  what  can  be  expected, — 
but  is  actually  the  sum  of  observed  and  timed  opera- 
tions, plus  a  definite  and  sufficient  percentage  of 
allowance  for  overcoming  the  fatigue, —  then  much 
objection  to  it  will  cease. 

General  Lack  of  Knowledge  the  Chief  Cause  of 
Objection  to  the  Task. —  As  is  the  case  with  most 
objections  to  Scientific  Management,  or  its  elements, 
ignorance  is  the  chief  obstacle  to  the  introduction  and 
success  of  the  Task  Idea,  This  ignorance  seems  to 
be  more  or  less  prevalent  everywhere  among  man- 
agers as  well  as  workers. 

Scientific  Management  can,  and  does,  succeed  even 
when  the  workers  are  ignorant  of  many  of  its  funda- 
mental principles,  but  it  will  never  make  the  strides 
that  it  should  until  every  man  working  under  it,  as 
well  as  all  outside,  understand  why  it  is  doing  as  it 
does,  as  well  as  what  is  done. 

This  educational  campaign  could  find  no  better 
starting  point  than  the  word  "  task,"  and  the  "  task 
idea." 

The  Name  Task  Is  Unfortunate.^ — The  Century 
Dictionary  defines  "  Task  "  as  follows : 

1.  "a  tax,  an  assessment,  an  impost 

2.  "  labor  imposed,  especially  a  definite  quantity  or 
amount  of  labor;  work  to  be  done;  one's  stint;  that 
which  duty  or  necessity  imposes;  duty  or  duties  col- 
lectively 

3.  "a  lesson  to  be  learned;  a  portion  of  study  im- 
posed by  a  teacher 

8  James  M,  Dodge,  Discussion  of  Paper  1119,  A.  S.  M,  E.,  para. 
284. 


132  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

4.  "  work  undertaken, —  an  undertaking 

5.  "burdensome  employment;  toil." 

Only  the  fourth  meaning,  as  here  given,  covers  in 
any  way  what  is  meant  by  the  task  in  Scientific  Man- 
agement. 

The  ideas  included  in  the  other  four  definitions  are 
most  unpleasant.  The  thought  of  labor ;  the  thought 
that  the  labor  is  imposed;  the  thought  that  the  imposi- 
tion is  definite;  that  duty  makes  it  necessary  that  it 
be  done;  that  it  is  burdensome;  that  it  is  toilsome: 
these  are  most  unfortunate  ideas  and  have  been  as- 
sociated with  the  word  so  long  in  the  human  mind 
that  it  will  be  a  matter  of  years  before  a  new  set  of 
associations  can  be  formed  which  will  be  pleasant,  and 
which  will  render  the  word  "  task "  attractive  and 
agreeable  to  the  worker  and  to  the  public  in  general. 

No  Other  Adequate  Word  Has  Been  Suggested. — 
However,  there  seems  to  be  no  better  word  forthcom- 
ing; therefore,  one  can  but  follow  the  example  of  the 
masters  in  management,  who  have  accepted  this  word, 
and  have  done  their  best  to  make  it  attractive  by  the 
way  they  themselves  have  used  it. 

To  the  writer,  the  word  "  stint "  is  far  more  attrac- 
tive and  more  truly  descriptive  than  is  "  task."  Per- 
haps because  of  the  old-fashioned  idea  that  a  reward, 
usually  immediate,  followed  the  completion  of  the 
"  stint." 

Opinions  as  to  a  preferable  word  will  doubtless 
vary,  but  it  is  self-evident  that  the  word  "  task  "  has 
already  become  so  firmly  established  in  Scientific 
Management  that  any  attempt  to  change  it  would 
result  in  a  confusion.     It  is  far  better  to  concentrate 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  133 

on  developing  a  new  set  of  associations  for  it  in  as 
many  minds  as  possible. 

Decided  Advantage  to  the  Use  of  the  Word  Task. 

—  Perhaps  in  one  way  it  is  fortunate  that  the  use 
of  the  word  "  task  "  does  coincide  more  or  less  with 
the  use  of  that  word  under  Traditional  Management. 
Under  Traditional  Management  the  task  is  the  work 
to  be  done.  It  may  be  just  as  well  that  the  same  word 
should  be  used  under  Scientific  Management,  in  order 
that  both  the  worker  and  investigator  may  realize, 
that,  after  all  the  work  that  is  to  he  done  is,  in  its  es- 
sentials, exactly  the  same.  With  this  realization  from 
the  beginning,  the  mind  of  the  worker  or  investigator 
may  be  the  more  predisposed  to  note  the  eliminations 
of  waste  and  the  cutting  down  of  time,  effort  and 
fatigue  under  the  scientifically  derived  methods. 

Definition  of  Task  as  Used  in  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.—The  task,  under  Scientific  Management, 
differs  from  the  task  under  Traditional  Management 
in  that  — 

1.  The  tools  and  surrounding  conditions  with  which 
the  work  shall  be  done  are  standardized. 

2.  The  method  in  which  the  work  shall  be  done  is 
prescribed. 

3.  The  time  that  the  work  shall  take  is  scientifically 
determined. 

4.  An  allowance  is  made  for  rest  from  fatigue. 

5.  The  quality  of  the  output  is  prescribed. 
When  to  this  is  added  the  fact  that  the  method  is 

taught,  and  that  the  reward  is  ample,  fixed,  prompt 
and  assured,  the  attractive  features  of  the  task  under 
Scientific  Management  have  been  made  plain. 


134  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Task  Idea  Applies  to  Work  of  Everyone. —  Under 
Scientific  Management  there  is  a  task  for  every  mem- 
ber of  the  organization,  from  the  head  of  the  manage- 
ment to  the  worker  at  the  most  rudimentary  work. 
This  is  too  often  not  known,  or  not  appreciated  by  the 
worker,  who  feels  that  what  is  deemed  best  for  him 
should  be  good  for  everyone.  The  mental  attitude 
will  never  be  right  till  all  understand  that  the  task  idea 
will  increase  efficiency  when  applied  to  any  possible 
kind  of  work.  With  the  application  of  the  task  idea 
to  all,  will  come  added  cooperation. 

Task  Idea  Applies  to  the  Work  of  the  Organiza- 
tion.—  The  work  which  is  to  be  done  by  the  organiza- 
tion should  be  considered  the  task  of  the  organization, 
and  this  organization  task  is  studied  before  individual 
tasks  are  set.  The  methods  used  in  determining  this 
organization  task  are  analysis  and  synthesis,  just  as 
in  the  case  of  the  individual  task. 

Individual  Tasks  Are  Elements  of  Organization 
Task. —  The  individual  tasks  are  considered  as  ele- 
ments of  the  organization  task.  The  problem  is,  to 
determine  the  best  arrangement  of  these  individual 
tasks,  the  best  schedule,  and  routing.  The  individual 
task  may  be  thought  of  as  something  moving,  that 
must  be  gotten  out  of  the  way. 

Management  has  been  called  largely  a  matter  of 
transportation.  It  may  be  "  transportation  "  or  mov- 
ing of  materials,  revolution  of  parts  of  fixed  machin- 
ery, or  merely  transportation  of  parts  of  one's  body  in 
manual  movements ;  "^  in  any  case,  the  laws  governing 
transportation  apply  to  all.  This  view  of  manage- 
7  F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Motion  Study. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  135 

ment  is  most  stimulating  to  the  mind.  A  moving 
object  attracts  attention  and  holds  interest.  Work 
that  is  interesting  can  be  accomplished  with  greater 
speed  and  less  fatigue.  Thinking  in  terms  of  the 
methods  of  Scientific  Management  as  the  most  ac- 
curate and  efficient  in  transporting  the  finished  output 
and  its  "  chips  "  ^  will  be  a  great  aid  towards  attaining 
the  best  results  possible  by  means  of  a  new  method  of 
visualizing  the  problem. 

Qualifications  of  the  S5mthesist. —  The  synthesist 
must  have  a  constructive  mind,  for  he  determines  the 
sequence  of  events  as  well  as  the  method  of  attack. 
He  must  have  the  ability  to  see  the  completed  whole 
which  he  is  trying  to  make,  and  to  regard  the  elements 
with  which  he  works  not  only  as  units,  but  in  relation 
to  each  other.  He  must  feel  that  any  combination  is 
influenced  not  only  by  the  elements  that  go  into  it, 
but  by  the  inter-relation  between  these  elements. 
This  differs  for  different  combinations  as  in  a  kaleido- 
scope. 

The  Synthesist  a  Conserver. —  The  Synthesist  must 
never  be  thought  of  as  a  destructive  critic.  He  is,  in 
reality,  a  conserver  of  all  that  is  valuable  in  old 
methods.  Through  his  work  and  that  of  the  analyst, 
the  valuable  elements  of  traditional  methods  are  in- 
corporated into  standard  methods.  These  standard 
methods  will,  doubtless,  be  improved  as  time  goes  on, 
but  the  valuable  elements  will  be  permanently  con- 
served. 

Synthesist  an  Inventor. — The  valuable  inventions 
referred  to  as  the  result  of  measurement  are  the  work 

"James  M.  Dodge. 


J36  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  the  synthetic  mind.  It  discovers  new,  better 
methods  of  doing  work,  and  this  results  in  the  inven- 
tion of  better  means,  such  as  tools  or  equipment. 

For  example, —  in  the  field  of  Bricklaying,  the  Non- 
stooping  Scaffold,  the  Packet  and  the  Fountain 
Trowel  were  not  invented  until  the  analysis  of  brick- 
laying was  made,  and  the  synthesis  of  the  chosen  ele- 
ments into  standard  methods  made  plain  the  need 
and  specifications  for  new  equipment. 

Relation  of  Invention  to  Scientific  Management 
Important. —  There  has  been  much  discussion  as  to 
the  relation  of  Inventiort  to  Scientific  Management. 
It  has  been  claimed  by  many  otherwise  able  authori- 
ties that  many  results  claimed  as  due  to  Scientific 
Management  are  really  the  results  of  new  machinery, 
tools  or  equipment  that  have  been  invented.^  Scien- 
tific Management  certainly  can  lay  no  claim  to  credit 
for  efficiency  which  comes  through  inventions  neither 
suggested  nor  determined  by  it.  But  the  inventions 
from  the  results  of  which  Scientific  Management  is 
said  to  have  borrowed  credit  are  usually,  like  the 
bricklaying  inventions  cited,  not  only  direct  results 
of  Scientific  Management,  but  probably  would  not 
have  sprung  from  any  other  source  for  years  to  come. 

Synthesist  a  Discoverer  of  Laws. —  It  is  the  syn- 
thetic type  of  mind  that  discovers  the  laws.  For  ex- 
ample —  it  was  Dr.  Taylor,  with  the  aid  of  a  few  of 
his  specially  trained  co-workers,  who  discovered  the 
following  governing  laws : 

I.  law  of  no  ratio  between  the  foot-pounds  of  work 
done  and  the  fatigue  caused  in  different  kinds  of  work. 

9  London,  Engineering,  Sept.  15,  191 1. 


ANALYSIS  AND  SYNTHESIS  137 

2.  law  of  percentage  of  rest  for  overcoming  fatigue. 

3.  law  of  classification  of  work  according  to  per- 
centage of  fatigue  caused. 

4.  laws  for  making  high-speed  steel. 

5.  laws  relating  to  cutting  metals. 

6.  laws  that  will  predict  the  right  speed,  feed  and 
cut  on  metals  for  the  greatest  output. 

7.  laws  for  predicting  maximum  quantity  of  output 
that  a  man  can  achieve  and  thrive. 

8.  laws  for  determining  the  selection  of  the  men 
best  suited  for  the  work. 

Synthesist  an  Adviser  on  Introduction  of  New 
Methods. —  Having  constructed  the  standard  tasks  or 
standard  methods  which  are  new,  the  synthesist  must 
remember  to  introduce  his  new  task  or  method  with 
as  few  new  variables  as  possible.  He  should  so 
present  it  that  all  the  old  knowledge  will  come  out  to 
meet  the  new,  that  all  the  brain  paths  that  have 
already  been  made  will  be  utilized,  and  that  the  new 
path  will  lead  out  from  paths  which  are  well  known 
and  well  traveled. 

Introduce  with  as  Few  New  Variables  as  Pos^ 
sible. —  The  greatest  speed  in  learning  a  new  method 
will  be  attained  by  introducing  it  with  as  few  new 
variables  as  possible. 

For  example, —  learning  to  dictate  to  a  dictaphone. 
The  writer  found  it  very  difficult,  at  first,  to  dictate 
into  the  dictaphone, — •  the  whirling  of  the  cylinder 
distracted  the  eye,  the  buzzing  of  the  motor  dis- 
tracted the  ear,  the  rubber  tube  leading  to  the  mouth- 
piece was  constantly  reminding  the  touch  that  some- 
thing new  was  being  attempted.     At  the  suggestion 


138  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  one  well  versed  in  Scientific  Management,  the 
niouth-piece  of  the  dictaphone  was  propped  on  the 
desk  telephone  on  a  level  with  the  mouth-piece  of  the 
latter.  The  writer  then  found  that  as  soon  as  one 
became  interested  in  the  dictating  and  one's  attention 
was  concentrated  on  the  thought,  one  was  able  ab- 
solutely to  forget  the  new  variable,  because  it  is  one 
which  is  kept  constant,  and  to  dictate  fluently.  The 
emphasis  laid  on  the  likeness  in  thus  dictating  to  the 
old  accustomed  act  of  talking  through  the  telephone, 
seemed  to  put  all  other  differences  into  the  back- 
ground, and  to  allow  of  forming  the  new  and  de- 
sired habit  very  quickly. 

SUMMARY 

Effect  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis  on  the  Work. —  As 
the  outcome  of  Analysis  and  Synthesis  is  Standardiza- 
tion, so  the  effect  of  them  upon  work  is  standard 
work.  Quantity  of  output  can  be  predicted,  quality 
of  output  is  assured. 

Effect  on  the  Woarker. —  The  effect  of  Analysis  and 
Synthesis  upon  the  worker  is  to  make  him  feel  that 
the  methods  which  he  is  using  are  right,  and  that,  be- 
cause of  this,  his  work  must  be  of  value.  The  more 
the  worker  is  induced  to  cooperate  in  the  determin- 
ing and  the  combination  of  elements,  the  more  will 
he  share  with  the  investigators  the  satisfaction  in  get- 
ting permanent  results.  The  outcome  of  this  co- 
operation will,  again,  result  in  more  perfect  future 
results,   and   so   on,   progressively. 


CHAPTER  VI 
STANDARDIZATION 

Definition  of  Standardization. —  Standardizatiori 
is  "  the  act  of  standardizing,  or  the  state  of  being 
standardized."  "  A  standard,"  according  to  the  Cen- 
tury Dictionary,  "  is  that  which  is  set  up  as  a  unit  of 
reference;  a  form,  type,  example,  incidence,  or  com- 
bination of  conditions  accepted  as  correct  and  perfect 
and  hence  as  a  basis  of  comparison.  A  criterion 
established  by  custom,  public  opinion  or  general  con- 
sent; a  model."  ^ 

We  must  note  particularly  that  the  standard  is  a 
"  unit  of  reference,"  that  it  is  a  "  basis  of  comparison," 
and  that  it  is  "  a  model."  These  three  phrases  de- 
scribe the  standard  in  management,  and  are  par- 
ticularly emphasized  by  the  use  of  the  standard  in 
Scientific  Management. 

Standards  Derived  from  Actual  Practice. —  Man- 
agement derives  its  standards  not  from  theories  as 
to  best  methods,  but  from  scientific  study  of  actual 
practice.^  As  already  shown,  the  method  of  deriving 
a  standard  is  — 

1  Compare  R.  T.  Dana  and  W.  L.  Sanders,  Rock  Drilling,  chap. 
XVI. 

2  The  idea  of  perfection  is  not  involved  in  the  standard  of 
Scientific  Management.  Morris  Llewellyn  Cooke,  Bulletin  No.  5, 
of  The  Carnegie  Foundation  for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  p. 
6. 

139 


I40  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

1.  to  analyze  the  best  practice  known  into  the  small- 
est possible  elements, 

2.  to  measure  these  elements, 

3.  to  adopt  the  least  wasteful  elements  as  stand- 
ard elements, 

4.  to  synthesize  the  necessary  standard  elements 
into  the  standard. 

The  Standard  Is  Progressive. —  A  standard  remains 
fixed  only  until  a  more  perfect  standard  displaces  it. 
The  data  from  which  the  standard  was  derived  may 
be  reviewed  because  of  some  error,  because  a  fur- 
ther subdivision  of  the  elements  studied  may  prove 
possible,  or  because  improvements  in  some  factor  of 
the  work,  i.  e.,  the  worker,  material,  tools,  equip- 
ment, etc.,  may  make  a  new  standard  desirable. 

The  fact  that  a  standard  is  recognized  as  not  be- 
ing an  ultimate  standard  in  no  wise  detracts  from  its 
working  value.  As  Captain  Metcalfe  has  said: 
"  Whatever  be  the  standard  of  measurement,  it 
suffices  for  comparison  if  it  be  generally  accepted,  if 
it  be  impartially  applied,  and  if  the  results  be  fully 
recorded."  ^ 

Change  in  the  Standard  Demands  Change  in  the 
Task  and  in  the  Incentive. —  Necessarily,  with  the 
change  in  the  standard  comes  a  change  in  the  task 
an4  in  the  reward.  All  parts  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment are  so  closely  related  that  it  is  impossible  to 
make  a  successful  progressive  step  in  one  branch 
without  simultaneously  making  all  the  related  pro- 
gressions in  other  branches  that  go  with  it. 

For  example, —  if  the  material  upon  which  a  stand- 
*  Cost  of  Manufactures. 


STANDARDIZATION  141 

ard  was  based  caused  more  care  or  effort,  a  smaller 
task  must  be  set,  and  wages  must  be  proportionately 
lowered.  Proportionately,  note,  for  determining 
that  change  would  necessitate  a  review  and  a  re- 
distribution of  the  cost  involved. 

In  the  same  way,  if  an  improvement  in  equipment 
necessitated  a  new  method,  as  does  the  packet  in  lay- 
ing brick,  a  new  task  would  become  imperative,  and 
a  reconsideration  of  the  wage.  The  wage  might 
remain  the  same,  it  might  go  down,  it  might  go  up. 
In  actual  practice,  in  the  case  of  bricklayers,  it  has 
gone  up.  But  the  point  is,  it  must  be  restudied. 
This  provides  effectually  against  cutting  the  rate  or 
increasing  the  task  in  any  unjust  manner. 

Similarity  Between  the  Standard  and  the  "Judg- 
ment" of  Psychology. —  There  are  many  points  of 
similarity  between  the  "  Standard,"  of  management, 
and  the  "  judgment "  of  psychology.  Sully  says,  in 
speaking  of  the  judgment,* — "  This  process  of  judg- 
ing illustrates  the  two  fundamental  elements  in 
thought  activity,  viz.,  analysis  and  synthesis."  "  To 
judge  is  clearly  to  discern  and  to  mark  off  as  a  spe- 
cial object  of  thought  some  connecting  relation." 
"  To  begin  with,  before  we  can  judge  we  must  have 
the  requisite  materials  for  forming  a  judgment." 
"  In  -the  second  place,  to  judge  is  to  carry  out  a  proc- 
ess of  reflection  on  given  material."  "  In  addition  to 
clearness  and  accuracy,  our  judgments  may  have 
other  perfections.  So  far  as  our  statements  accord 
with  known  facts,  they  should  be  adhered  to,- —  at 
least,  till  new  evidence  proves  them  untrue." 

*  Sully,  The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology,  pp.  290-292. 


142  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Psychology  a  Final  Appeal  as  to  Permanent  Value 
o£  Any  Standard. —  The  standard  under  manage- 
ment, even  under  Scientific  Management,  can  lay  no 
claim  to  being  perfect.  It  can  never  nearly  approach 
perfection  until  the  elements  are  so  small  that  it  is 
practicable  to  test  them  psychologically  and  physio- 
logically. The  time  v^hen  this  can  be  done  in 
many  lines,  when  the  benefit  that  will  directly  ac- 
crue will  justify  the  necessary  expenditure,  may  seem 
far  distant,  but  every  analysis  of  operations,  no  mat- 
ter how  rudimentary,  is  hastening  the  day  when  the 
underlying,  permanently  valuable  elements  can  be 
determined  and  their  variations  studied. 

Cooperation  Will  Hasten  the  Day  of  Psychological 
and  Physiological  Study  of  Standards. —  Cooperation 
in  collecting  and  comparing  the  results  of  motion 
study  and  time  study  everywhere  will  do  much  to 
assist  toward  more  ultimate  determination  of  ele- 
ments. At  the  present  time  the  problems  that  man- 
agement submits  to  psychology  are  too  indefinite 
and  cover  too  large  a  field  to  be  attacked  success- 
fully. Cooperation  between  management  stand- 
ardizers  would  mean  — 

1.  that  all  management  data  would  be  available  to 
psychologists  and  physiologists. 

2.  that  such  data,  being  available  also  to  all  stand- 
ardizers,  would  prevent  reduplication,  of  results. 

3.  that  savings  would  result. 

4.  that,  from  a  study  and  comparison  of  the  col- 
lected data  a  trained  synthetic  mind  could  build  up 
better  standards  than  could  be  built  from  any  set  of 
individual  data. 


STANDARDIZATION  143 

5.  Savings  would  result  from  this. 

6.  Inventions  would  also  result. 

7.  Savings  would  again  result  from  these. 

8.  All  of  these  various  savings  could  be  invested 
in  more  intensive  study  of  elements. 

9.  These  more  valuable  results  would  again  be 
available  to  psychologists  and  physiologists. 

This  cycle  would  go  on  indefinitely.  Meantime, 
all  would  benefit  with  little  added  cost  to  any.  For 
the  results  of  the  psychological  and  physiological 
study  would  be  available  to  all,  and  investigators  in 
those  lines  have  shown  themselves  ready  and  glad 
to  undertake  investigations. 

Purpose  of  Standardization. —  The  purpose  of 
standardizing  is  the  same  under  all  types  of  man- 
agement; that  is,  it  is  the  elimination  of  waste. 

Standardization  Frequently  Attempted  Under  Tra- 
ditional Management. —  In  much  progressive  Tradi- 
tional Management  there  is  an  appreciation  of  the 
necessity  of  standardizing  tools  and  equipment,  that 
is  to  say,  of  having  these  on  the  "  duplicate  part 
system,"  that  assembling  may  be  done  quickly,  and 
repairs  made  without  delay. 

The  manager  notices  some  particularly  successful 
man,  or  method,  or  arrangement  of  tools,  equipment, 
or  the  surroundings,  and  decides  to  have  a  record 
made  thereof  that  the  success  may  be  repeated. 
These  records,  if  made  in  sufficient  detail,  are  very 
valuable.  The  difficulty  is  that  so  often  the  man 
making  the  records  does  not  observe  all  the  variables. 
Hence  the  very  elements  which  caused  the  success 
may  be  overlooked  entirely. 


144  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Value  of  Standardization  Not  Appreciated  Under 
Traditional  Management. —  It  is  surprising,  under 
Traditional  Management,  to  note,  in  many  cases,  the 
years  that  elapse  before  any  need  for  standardiza- 
tion is  felt.  It  is  also  surprising  that,  even  when 
some  standardization  has  been  done,  its  importance 
is  seldoni  realized.  The  new  standard  becomes  a 
matter  of  course,  and  the  management  fails  to  be 
impressed  enough  with  its  benefits  to  apply  the 
principle  of  standardization  to  other  fields. 

Under  Transitory  Management  Standardization 
Becomes  Constantly  More  Important. —  Not  until 
Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  have  been  introduced 
can  the  full  benefits  of  standardization  be  attained. 
But  as  soon  as  the  Transitory  Stage  of  Management 
appears,  the  importance  of  standardization  is  realized. 
This  is  brought  about  largely  through  the  records 
of  individual  outputs,  which  constantly  call  attention 
to  the  necessity  of  making  available  to  all  the  meth- 
ods, tools  and  equipment  of  the  most  successful 
workers. 

Records  of  Successes  Become  More  Profitable. — 
The  rules  which  embody  successful  practice  become 
more  profitable  as  the  necessity  for  more  detailed 
recording  of  all  the  variables  becomes  possible.  An 
appreciation  of  what  scientific  motion  study  and  time 
study  will  ultimately  do  affects  the  minds  of  the  man- 
agement until  the  workers  are  given  directions  as 
to  methods  to  be  used,  and  the  incentive  of  extra 
pay  for  following  directions. 

"  Systems "  Show  an  Appreciation  of  Psychol- 
ogy.— ^The    "  Systems,"    standing    orders    or    collec- 


STANDARDIZATION  145 

tions  of  written  directions,  that  are  evolved  at  this 
stage  have  a  permanent  value.  This  is  especially  true 
when  the  directions,  often  called  "  rules,"  contain  the 
reason  for  the  rule.  There  is  a  decided  awakening  to 
the  importance  of  Psychology  in  this  appeal  to  the 
reason  of  the  worker.  He  is  not  affronted  by  being 
forced  to  follow  directions  for  which  he  is  given  no 
reason  and  which  he  has  no  reason  to  believe  have 
been  scientifically  derived.  These  rules,  in  a  certain 
typical  case,  are  stated  in  simple  language,  some  in 
the  form  of  commands,  some  in  the  form  of  sugges- 
tions, and  are  obviously  so  prepared  as  to  be  under- 
stood and  obeyed  by  the  workers  with  the  least  pos- 
sible amount  of  effort,  opposition  and  time.  As 
ample  opportunity  is  given  for  suggestions,  the 
worker's  attention  and  interest  are  held,  and  any 
craving  he  may  have  for  self-expression  is  gratified. 
Systems  Permanently  Useful. —  These  systems, 
collections  of  rules,  directions  or  standing  orders  are 
useful  even  when  Ultimate  Management  is  com- 
pletely installed  — 

1.  for  use  as  records  of  successful  methods  which 
may  be  scientifically  studied  for  elements. 

2.  for  use  by  the  instruction  card  clerk  In  explain- 
ing to  the  men  why  the  rules  on  the  instruction  card 
are  given. 

Relation  of  Systems  to  Standards  Should  Be 
Emphasized. —  The  worker  is  too  often  not  made  to 
understand  the  relation  of  Systems  to  Standards. 
The  average  worker  does  not  object  to  Systems,  be- 
cause he  realizes  that  the  System  is  a  collection  of 
his    best,    least    wasteful    methods    of    doing    work. 


146  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

When  he  can  be  convinced  that  standards  are  only 
efficient  elements  of  his  own  methods  scientifically 
studied  and  combined,  any  opposition  to  them  will 
disappear. 

The  Personal  Note  of  the  "System"  Should  Be 
Preserved. —  Perhaps  one  thing  that  makes  the  typ- 
ical "  Systems "  so  attractive  is  the  personal  note 
that  they  contain.  Illustrated  with  pictures  of  suc- 
cessful work  that  the  workers  themselves  have  done, 
often  containing  pictures  of  the  men  themselves  that 
illustrate  successful  methods,  with  mention  of  the 
names  of  men  who  have  offered  valuable  suggestions 
or  inventions,  they  make  the  worker  feel  his  part  in 
successful  results.  They  conserve  the  old  spirit  of 
cooperation  between  the  master  and  his  apprentices. 

The  conditions  of  modern  industry  make  it  ex- 
tremely difficult  to  conserve  this  feeling.  Scientific 
Management  is  successful  not  only  because  it  makes 
possible  a  more  effective  cooperation  than  has  ever 
existed  since  the  old  "  master-and-apprentice "  re- 
lation died  out,  but  also  because  it  conserves  in  the 
Systems  the  interim  channel  for  personal  communi- 
cation between  the  various  members  of  the  organiza- 
tion. 

Systems  a  Valuable  Assistance  in  Transition  to 
Scientific  Management. —  One  great  problem  which 
those  introducing  Scientific  Management  have  to 
face  is  exactly  how  to  make  the  worker  understand 
the  relation  of  the  new  type  of  management  to  the 
old.  The  usefulness  of  the  written  system  in  use  in 
most  places  where  it  is  planned  to  introduce  Scien- 
tific Management  as  a  means  of  making  the  worker 


STANDARDIZATION  147 

understand  the  transition  has,  perhaps,  not  been  ap- 
preciated. 

The  development  of  the  standard  from  the  system 
is  easy  to  explain.  This  being  done,  all  parts  of 
Scientific  Management  are  so  closely  related  that 
their  interrelation  can  be  readily  made  apparent. 

It  is  the  worker's  right  as  well  as  privilege  to  un- 
derstand the  management  under  which  he  works,  and 
he  only  truly  cooperates,  with  his  will  and  judgment 
as  well  as  with  his  hands,  when  he  feels  that  his  mind 
is  a  part  of  the  directing  mind. 

Standardization  Under  Scientific  Management 
Eliminates  Waste  Scientifically. —  Under  Scientific 
Management  the  elimination  of  waste  by  the  use  of 
standards  becomes  a  science.  Standards  are  no 
longer  based  on  opinions,  as  under  Traditional  Man- 
agement, but  are  based  upon  scientific  investigation 
of  the  elements  of  experience. 

As  James  says,  in  the  "  Psychology,  Briefer 
Course,"  page  156,  paragraph  4, — "  It  is  obvious  and 
palpable  that  our  state  of  mind  is  never  precisely  the 
same.  Every  thought  we  have  of  a  given  fact  is, 
strictly  speaking,  unique  and  only  bears  a  resem- 
blance of  kind  with  our  other  thoughts  of  the  same 
facts.  When  the  identical  fact  recurs  we  must  think 
of  it  in  a  fresh  manner,  see  it  under  a  somewhat  dif- 
ferent angle,  apprehend  it  in  different  relations  from 
those  in  which  it  last  appeared." 

The  Standard  the  Result  of  Measurement. —  It  is 
obvious,  therefore,  that  a  scientifically  derived  stand- 
ard can  never  be  the  outcome  of  an  opinion. 
Whenever  the  opinion  returns,  the  different  thoughts 


148  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

with  which  it  would  be  accompanied  would  so  color 
it  as  to  change  it,  and  the  standard  with  it.  It  is 
obvious,  therefore,  that  a  standard  must  be  the  re- 
sult of  definite  mathematical  and  other  measured 
proof,  and  not  of  an  opinion,  and  that  the  standard 
must  be  in  such  physical  shape  that  the  subject-mat- 
ter will  always  be  clearly  defined,  otherwise  the  ul- 
timate losses  resulting  from  dependent  sequences  of 
the  standard  schedule  and  time-tables  would  be  enor- 
mous. 

Successful  Standardization  Demands  Complete 
Conformity  to  Standards. —  The  laws  for  establish- 
ment of  standards;  the  laws  of  achieving  them;  the 
laws  for  preventing  deviations  from  those  paths  that 
will  permit  of  their  achievement;  the  dependent  se- 
quences absolutely  necessary  to  perform  the  com- 
plete whole;  these  have  been  worked  out  and  given 
to  the  world  by  Dr.  Taylor,  who  recognized,  as 
James  has  said,  page  157,  that,  "a  permanently  ex- 
isting '  Idea '  which  makes  its  appearance  before  the 
footlights  of  consciousness  at  periodic  intervals,  is  as 
mythological  an  entity  as  the  Jack  of  Spades."  The 
entire  organization  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest 
must  conform  to  these  standards.  It  is  out  of  the 
question  to  permit  the  deviations  resulting  from  in- 
dividual initiative.  Individual  initiative  is  quite  as 
objectionable  in  obtaining  the  best  results, —  that  is, 
high  wages  and  low  production  cost, —  as  service 
would  be  on  a  railroad  if  each  locomotive  engineer 
were  his  own  train  despatcher,  determining  at  what 
time  and  to  what  place  he  would  go. 

Initiative  Provided  For. —  There  is  a  distinct  place 


STANDARDIZATION  149 

for  initiative  in  Scientific  Management,  but  that  place 
is  not  outside  of  the  planning  department,  until  the 
planning  department's  method  has  been  proved  to 
be  fully  understood  by  achieving  it.  The  standards 
must  be  made  by  the  men  to  whom  this  work  is  as- 
signed, and  they  must  be  followed  absolutely  by  the 
worker.  He  is  willing  to  follow  them,  under  Scien- 
tific Management,  because  he  realizes  that  a  place 
for  his  suggestions  is  supplied,  and  that,  if  his  sug- 
gestions are  accepted,  they  will  be  incorporated  into 
the  new  standards  which  must  then  be  followed  by 
all  thereafter. 

Standardization  Applies  to  the  Work  of  All. —  It 
is  important  to  note  that  standardizing  is  applied  to 
the  work  of  all.  This,  if  understood  by  all,  will  do 
away  with  all  question  of  discrimination  or  the  lack 
of  a  "  square  deal."  It  will  make  the  worker  feel 
ready  to  follow  his  standard  exactly,  just  as  he  knows 
the  manager  is  following  his.  So,  also,  the  worker 
should  be  made  to  realize  that  the  very  fact  that 
there  is  a  standardization  means,  under  Scientific 
Management,  that  that  applies  to  every  man,  and 
that  there  is  no  discrimination  against  him  in  any 
possible  way. 

Standardization  Conserves  and  Develops  Indi- 
viduality.—  Standardization  conserves  individual  ca- 
pacity by  doing  away  with  the  wasteful  process  of 
trial  and  error  of  the  individual  workman.  It  de- 
velops individuality  by  allowing  the  worker  to  con- 
centrate his  initiative  upon  work  that  has  not  be- 
fore been  done,  and  by  providing  incentive  and  re- 
ward for  inventions. 


I50  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Waste   Eliminated  Is  Eliminated  Permanently. — 

Scientific  Management  not  only  eliminates  waste, 
but  provides  that  waste  shall  be  eliminated  for  all 
time  in  the  future. 

The  standard  once  written  down,  there  can  be  no 
slipping  back  into  the  old  methods  based  upon 
opinions  of  the  facts. 

Standardization  Under  Scientific  Management  Re- 
sembles Standardization  of  Spelling. —  The  need  for 
standardization  has  already  been  emphasized,  but 
might  further  be  illustrated  by  the  discussions,  pro 
and  con,  of  the  question  of  simplified  spelling.  Be- 
fore the  days  of  dictionaries,  our  spelling  was  not 
standardized  —  it  was  the  privilege  of  any  good 
writer  to  spell  much  as  he  desired;  but  the  creation 
of  written  standards  of  spelling,  that  is  to  say  the 
making  of  dictionaries,  fixed  the  forms  of  spelling  at 
that  time,  that  is,  created  standards.  The  Simplified 
Spelling  Board  is  now  endeavoring  to  make  some 
new  standards,  their  action  being  based  upon  suf- 
ficient reasons  for  making  a  change,  and  also  for  not 
changing  the  spelling  of  any  word  until  it  is  deter- 
mined that  the  suggested  spelling  is  more  advisable 
than  the  old  spelling. 

Just  so,  under  Scientific  Management,  the  best 
known  standards  are  used  continuously  until  better 
have  been  discovered.  The  planning  department, 
consisting  of  the  best  men  available,  whose  special 
duty  it  is  to  create  new  standards,  acts  as  does  the 
Simplified  Spelling  Board,  as  a  court  of  appeals  for 
new  standards,  which  must  pass  this  court  before 
they  can  hope  to  succeed  the  old,  and  which  must, 


STANDARDIZATION  151 

if  they  are  to  be  accepted,  possess  many  elements  of 
the  old  and  be  changed  only  in  such  a  way  that 
the  users  can,  without  difficulty,  shift  to  the  new 
use. 

Under  Scientific  Management  Nomenclature  Is 
Standardized. —  Under  Standardization  in  Scientific 
Management  the  standardization  of  the  nomencla- 
ture, of  the  names  and  of  the  terms  used  must  be 
noted.  The  effect  of  this  upon  the  mind  is  excellent, 
because  the  use  of  a  word  very  soon  becomes  a  habit 
—  its  associations  become  fixed.  If  different  names 
are  used  for  the  same  thing, —  that  is  to  say,  if 
different  names  are  used  indiscriminately,  the  thing 
itself  becomes  hazy,  in  just  such  a  degree  as  it  pos- 
sesses many  names.  The  use  of  the  fixed  term,  the 
fixed  word,  leads  to  definiteness  always.  Just  so, 
also,  the  Mnemonic  Symbol  system  in  use  by  Scien- 
tific Management,  leads  to  swift  identification  of  the 
subdivision  of  the  classification  to  which  it  is  ap- 
plied, and  to  elimination  of  waste  in  finding  and  re- 
membering where  to  find  any  particular  thing  or 
piece  of  information  desired.  By  it  may  be  identi- 
fied "  the  various  articles  of  manufacture  and  papers 
relating  to  it  as  well  as  the  operations  to  be  per- 
formed on  each  piece  and  the  various  charges  of  the 
establishment." 

Mnemonic  Symbols  Save  Time  and  Effort. —  These 
Mnemonic  Symbols  save  actual  motions  and  time  in 
speaking  and  writing,  and  save  time  in  that  they  are 
so  designed  as  to  be  readily  remembered.  They 
also  save  time  and  effort  in  that  the  mind  accustomed 
to  them  works   with   them   as   collective   groups   of 


iSa  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ideas,  without  stopping  to  elaborate  them  into  their 
more  detailed  form. 

Standard  Phraseology  Eliminates  Waste. —  As 
typical  of  the  savings  effected  by  standardization,  we 
may  cite  a  lineman  talking  to  the  Central  Telephone 
Office:  — 

"  John  Doe  — 1234  L.  Placing  Extension  Station." 
This  signified  — "  My  name  is  John  Doe,  I  am  tele- 
phoning from  number  1234,  party  L.  I  have  finished 
installing  an  extension  station.  Where  shall  I  go 
next?" 

In  the  same  way  standard  signals  are  remembered 
best  by  the  man  who  signals  and  are  understood 
quickest  by  the  man  who  receives  them,  with  a  di- 
rect increase  in  speed  to  the  work  done. 

Standard  Man  Is  the  Man  upon  Whom  Studies 
Are  Made. —  The  standard  man  is  the  ideal  man  to 
observe  and  with  whom  to  obtain  the  best  Motion 
Study  and  Time  Study  data.  He  is  the  fastest 
worker,  working  under  the  direction  of  the  man  best 
informed  in  the  particular  trade  as  to  the  motions  of 
best  present  practice,  and  being  timed  by  a  Time 
Study  Expert. 

Relation  Between  the  Standard  Man,  the  First- 
Class  Man,  the  Given  Man  and  the  Task. —  The  "  first- 
class  man  "  under  Scientific  Management  means  the 
man  who  is  best  fitted  by  nature  and  by  training  to 
do  the  task  permanently  or  until  promoted. 

The  "  given  man  "  is  the  man  who  is  actually  put 
to  work  at  the  task,  whether  or  not  he  is  well  fitted 
for  its  performance. 

The  "  task "   is   that  percentage   of  the   standard 


STANDARDI2ATI0N  XS3 

man's  achievement  that  the  given  man  to  -vsrhom  the 
task  is  to  be  assigned  can  do  continuously  and  thrive, 
that  he  can  do  easily  enough  to  win  his  bonus  with- 
out injuring  himself,  temporarily  or  permanently,  in 
any  way. 

Writing  the  Standard  Means  for  Conveymg  In- 
formation.—  Under  Scientific  Management,  and  even 
in  the  early  stages  of  Transitory  Management,  writ- 
ing is  the  standard  means  of  conveying  information. 

All  orders,  without  exception,  should  be  in  writing. 
This  insures  that  the  "  eye  v/orkers  "  get  their  di- 
rections in  the  most  impressive  form;  does  away  with 
the  need  of  constant  oral  repetition;  eliminates  con- 
fusion; insures  a  clear  impression  in  the  mind  of  the 
giver  as  well  as  of  the  receiver  of  the  order  as  to  ex- 
actly what  is  wanted;  and  provides  a  record  of  all 
orders  given.  Putting  the  instructions  in  writing  in 
no  way  precludes  utilizing  the  worker's  natural  apti- 
tude to  learn  by  imitation,  for  he  also  always  has  the 
opportunity  to  watch  and  imitate  the  workings  of  the 
functional  teachers  as  well  as  his  scientifically  taught 
fellow-workers. 

The  Instruction  Card  the  Standard  Method  of  Con- 
veying Instructions  as  to  the  Task. —  The  records  of 
the  work  of  the  standard  man  are  contained  in  data 
of  the  Motion  Study  and  Time  Study  department. 
These  records,  in  the  form  in  which  they  are  to  be 
used  by  the  man  who  is  to  perform  the  task,  are,  for 
the  benefit  of  that  man,  incorporated  in  what  is 
known  as  the  instruction  card. 

Definition  of  the  Instruction  Card. —  The  instruc- 
tion card  is  a  set  of  directions  for  the  man,  telling 


154  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

him  what  he  is  to  do,  how  he  is  to  do  it,  how  long  it 
should  take  him  to  do  it,  and  what  he  will  receive  for 
doing  it,  and  giving  him  an  opportunity  to  call  for, 
and  obtain,  assistance  the  instant  that  he  finds  he 
cannot  do  it,  and  to  report  back  to  the  managers  as 
to  how  he  has  succeeded  in  the  performance. 

The  Instruction  Card  has  been  called  "  a  self- 
producer  of  a  predetermined  product." 

Comparative  Definition  of  Instruction  Cards,  Un- 
der Scientific  Management. —  There  are  three  types 
of  Instruction  Cards,  which  may  be  described  as  fol- 
lows: 

Type  One :  —  Largely  geographical,  telling 

1.  Where  to  Work. 

2.  From  Whom  to  Take  Orders. 

3.  What  to  Do. 

Type  Two:  —  Typical  engineer's  specification, — 
telling 

1.  Results  desired. 

2.  Qualities  of  Products. 

Type  Three:  —  A  list  of  elementary,  step-by-step 
instructions,  subdivided  into  their  motions,  with  time 
allowed  for  each  timable  element,  preferably  for  each 
motion,  and  a  division  between 

1.  Getting  ready, 

2.  Making  or  constructing. 

3.  Clearing  up.  This  is  the  only  type  used  by 
Scientific  Management. 

Directions^  Pay  Allowance  and  Time  Allowance 
Essential. —  The  Instruction  Card  under  Scientific 
Management  must  contain  directions,  and  state  the 
pay  allowance  and  time  allowance. 


STANDARDIZATION  iSS 

Directions  as  to  how  the  work  shall  be  done  elim- 
inate waste  by  cutting  out  all  wrong  methods  and 
prescribing  the  right  method  exactly. 

The  setting  of  a  time  in  which  the  work  is  to  be 
done  is  a  great  stimulus  to  the  worker,  and  is  also 
necessary,  because  upon  the  attainment  of  this  set 
time  depends  the  ability  of  the  managers  to  pay  the 
bonus  to  the  worker,  and  also  to  maintain  a  schedule, 
or  time-table,  that  will  make  possible  the  maintain- 
ing of  necessary  conditions  for  others,  in  turn,  to 
earn  their  bonuses.  It  cannot  be  too  often  em- 
phasized that  the  extra  wages  are  paid  to  the  men 
out  of  the  savings,  and  are  absolutely  dependent  upon 
the  fact  of  there  being  savings.  It  is  only  when  the 
worker  does  the  work  within  the  time  prescribed, 
that  the  managers  do  save  enough  to  warrant  the 
payment  of  the  extra  wages  that  compensate  the 
man  for  doing  the  stipulated  quantity  of  work. 

The  instruction  card  contains  a  statement  of  the 
wage  or  bonus  that  will  be  earned  for  the  complete 
performance  of  the  task  set  therein,  thus  furnishing 
an  incentive  at  the  time  that  the  work  is  done. 

Standard  Division  of  Instruction  Card  Necessary. — 
There  are  many  reasons  for  dividing  an  instruction 
card  in  the  present  standard  way,  namely, — 

(a)  to  reduce  the  amount  of  time  study  observa- 
tion necessary  to  be  taken, 

(b)  to  reduce  the  difficulties  of  synthesizing  the 
time  studied  element, 

(c)  to  locate  quickly  just  where  the  worker 
needs  help  and  instruction  to  enable  him  to 
achieve  his  task, 


156  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

(d)  to  keep  up  the  interest  of  the  worker  by 
having  short  time  elements  with  which  to 
measure  his  relative  ability, 

(e)  to  present  the  subject-matter  of  instruction 
in  such  natural  subdivisions  that  resting 
places  are  automatically  provided  that 
allow  the  mind  to  recover  from  its  absorption 
of  each  subdivision.  This  provides  definite 
stopping  places  between  co-related  units  of 
instruction  holding  the  attention  as  a  com- 
plete unit  against  distraction,  and  a  com- 
plete resting  place  between  subdivisions 
that  permits  the  mind  to  relax  and  wander 
without  losing  complete  grasp  of  each  unit 
as  a  whole. 

Detailed  Instruction  Educative. —  The  greater  the 
perfection  of  the  detail  of  the  instruction  card,  the 
greater  the  educative  value  of  this  plan  of  manage- 
ment. The  educative  value  of  the  instruction  card 
will  be  discussed  at  length  under  Teaching. 

Those  inexperienced  in  Scientific  Management 
have  complained  that  the  detail  of  Instruction  Cards 
and  other  parts  of  Scientific  Management  is  tiresome. 
Dr.  Taylor  has  answered  such  objectors  In  Discus- 
sions, and  also  in  his  own  directions  for  planning  the 
Instruction  Card,  which  are  to  be  found  in  "  Shop 
Management." 

The  advantages  of  the  detailed  instruction  card 
are  more  than  might  appear  on  the  surface.  Not 
only  does  the  man  whose  attention  is  easily  distracted 
keep  to  his  work  better  if  he  is  told  every  possible 
detail,  but  also  the  cards  when  filed  can  be  taken  out 


STANDARDIZATION  IS7 

again,  and  every  detail  and  item  of  the  method  re- 
viewed at  length  and  revised  if  necessary. 

The  experienced  worker  who  gets  to  know  the  in- 
struction by  rote  is  not  bothered  by  extreme  detail. 
On  the  contrary,  he  grasps  it  at  a  glance,  and  focuses 
his  mind  upon  any  new  feature  and  upon  the  speed 
and  exactness  of  muscular  action  needed  for  compli- 
ance with  the  card. 

Language  of  Instruction  Card  Important. —  The 
language  in  which  instructions  and  commands  are 
transmitted  on  the  instruction  card  is  of  sufficient  im- 
portance to  warrant  careful  consideration.  It  would 
be  helpful  if  the  instruction  card  clerk  and  the  man 
who  is  to  use  the  instruction  cards  were  both  mas- 
ters of  English,  but  this  is  hardly  to  be  expected. 
The  best  substitute  for  such  special  English  train- 
ing is  a  "  System  "  for  the  use  of  the  instruction  card 
clerk  that  will  give  him  some  outline  of  English  that 
will  by  degrees  make  his  wording  terse,  simple  and 
unambiguous. 

He  should  be  impressed  with  the  value  of  short 
sentences,  and  of  sentences  that  will  require  no 
punctuation  other  than  a  period  at  the  end.  The 
short  sentence  is  the  most  important  step  toward 
brevity,  terseness,  conciseness  and  clear  thinking. 

The  second  most  important  feature  is  that  the  in- 
struction card  clerk  always  uses  the  same  standard 
wording  for  the  same  instructions.  Repetition  of 
phrasing  is  a  virtue,  and  the  use  of  the  same  word 
for  the  same  thing  and  the  same  meaning  repeatedly 
is  very  desirable.  The  wording,  phrasing  and  sen- 
tencing should  be  standard  wherever  possible. 


158  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Standard  Phrasing  Desirable. — ^After  a  short  time 
a  phrase  or  sentence  that  is  often  repeated  will  be 
recognized  as  quickly  as  will  a  word  or  a  letter. 
Men  who  cannot  read  and  write  at  all  are  compara- 
tively few.  Men  who  can  read  and  write  but  little 
are  many.  It  is  entirely  possible  to  teach  such  men 
standard  groupings,  which  they  can  recognize  on  the 
Instruction  Card  and  use  in  a  very  short  time. 

For  example, —  laborers  who  do  not  even  know 
their  alphabets  will  learn  quickly  to  read  setting 
marks  on  cut  stone. 

Just  as  mnemonic  symbols  save  time  and  effort,  so 
standard  phrasing  aids  toward  finding  out  what  is 
to  be  done,  and  remembering  how  it  is  to  be  done.** 
Both  of  these  can  be  accomplished  if  the  standardiza- 
tion is  so  complete  that  directions  can  be  read  and 
remembered  almost  at  a  glance.® 

Specific  Terms  Helpful. —  To  be  most  effective, 
directions  should  be  in  the  imperative  form,  and  in 
specific  terms. 

The  history  and  growth  of  language  shows  that 
the  language  of  the  savage  consisted  of  vague  gen- 
eral terms  as  compared  to  the  specific  individual 
terms  of  the  modern  language  of  civilized  man. 
There  are  examples  to  be  seen  on  every  hand  to-day 
where  the  oral  language  of  instructions  and  orders  to 
proceed,  that  are  given  to  the  worker,  are  still  more 
vague,  comparatively,  than  the  language  between 
savages. 

^  C.  B.  Going,  Methods  of  the  Sanfe  Fe,  p.  66. 
*  For  desirability  of  standard  signals  see  R.  T.  Dana,  Handbook  of 
Steam  Shovel  Work,  p.  32. 


STANDARDIZATION  159 

Similarity  of  Form  and  Shape  Advisable. —  As  for 

the  form  and  shape,  as  Dr.  Taylor  says,  "  anything 
that  will  transmit  ideas  by  sketch  or  wording  will 
serve  as  an  instruction  card."  He  advises,  however, 
taking  advantage  of  the  saving  in  time  to  be  gained 
by  having  the  instruction  cards  as  nearly  alike  as  pos- 
sible. They  may,  for  convenience'  sake,  vary  as  to 
length,  but  in  width,  ruling,  spacing  and  wording  they 
should  be  as  nearly  alike  as  possible. 

Standard  Surroundings  Valuable. —  Standard  en- 
vironment, or  surroundings,  of  the  worker  are  val- 
uable for  two  reasons: 

1.  Because  they  directly  increase  output  by  elim- 
inating everything  which  might  distract  attention  or 
cause  needless  fatigue,  and  by  assisting  in  the  attain- 
ment of  more  output  by  having  the  best  possible  sur- 
roundings for  greater  output. 

2.  Because  all  surroundings  suggest  an  easy 
achievement.  Knowing  that  everything  has  been 
done  to  make  his  work  possible  and  easy,  the  worker 
feels  this  atmosphere  of  possibihty  and  ease  around 
him,  and  the  suggestive  power  of  this  is  strong. 

Unnecessary  Fatigue  Should  Be  Eliminated. —  The 
walls,  appliances  and  furniture,  and  the  clothing  of 
the  worker  should  be  of  that  color  which  will  rest  his 
eyes  from  the  fatigue  of  the  work.  All  unnecessary 
noise  should  be  ehminated,  and  provision  should  be 
made,  where  possible,  that  the  workers  may  enjoy 
their  sleep  or  their  rest  hours  in  perfect  quiet. 

Records  show  the  value  of  having  quiet  reign  in 
and  near  the  camp,  that  the  workers  may  not  be 
disturbed.     Even    though    they    are    not    disturbed 


i6o  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

enough  to  be  waked  up,  every  noise  that  is  registered 
in  the  brain  affects  the  body,  for  it  is  now  conceded 
that  the  body  reflects  every  phase  of  mental  activity. 

All  Mental  States  Affect  Bodily  States. —  Dr. 
Stratton  says :  "  It  is  now  generally  accepted  that 
the  body  reflects  every  shade  of  psychic  operations; 
that  in  all  manner  of  mental  action  there  is  some 
physical  expression,"  '^  All  consciousness  is  motor 
*'  is  the  brief  expression  of  this  important  truth ;  every 
mental  state  somehow  runs  over  into  a  correspond- 
ing bodily  state." 

Elimination  of  Worry  Assists  in  Concentrating  At- 
tention.—  The  more  fireproof  the  building,  and  the 
more  stable  the  other  conditions,  the  greater  the 
efficiency  of  the  inmate.  Burglar-proof  buildings  not 
only  actually  induce  better  sleep,  in  that  possible  in- 
trusions are  eliminated,  but  give  a  state  of  mental 
peace  by  the  removal  of  apprehension.  So  also,  a 
"  germ  proof  "  house  is  not  only  really  more  health- 
ful for  an  inmate,  but  eliminates  worry  over  possible 
danger  of  ill  health.  The  mental  health  of  the 
worker  not  only  controls,  in  a  measure,  his  physical 
health,  but  also  his  desire  to  work.  Having  no  dis- 
tractions, he  can  put  his  mind  upon  that  which  is 
given  him  to  do. 

Distracted  Attention  Causes  Fatigue. —  The  atten- 
tion of  the  worker  is  apt  to  be  distracted  not  only  by 
recognized  dangers,  such  as  burglars,  fires,  and  dis- 
ease, but  also  by  other  transitory  things  that,  in- 
voluntarily on  his  part,  take  his  mind  from  the  work 
in  hand.     A   flickering  light  distracts  the   attention 

'  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  pp.  268-269. 


STANDARDIZATION  i6i 

and  causes  fatigue,  whether  we  have  consciously  no- 
ticed it  or  not.  Many  things  are  recorded  by  the 
senses  without  one's  being  conscious  of  them. 

For  example,  the  ceasing  of  a  clock  to  tick,  al- 
though we  have  not  noticed  that  it  was  ticking.  An- 
other example  is  the  effect  upon  the  pulse  or  the 
brain  of  being  spoken  to  when  asleep. 

The  flickering  lamp  of  the  chronocyclegraph  device 
is  much  more  fatiguing  than  the  steady  lamp  of  plain 
cyclegraphs. 

Proper  Placing  of  Workers  Eliminates  Distracted 
Attention. —  Workers  must  be  placed  so  that  they 
do  not  see  intermittently  moving  objects  out  of  the 
corners  of  their  eyes.  In  the  early  history  of  man 
it  was  continuously  necessary  to  watch  for  first  evi- 
dence of  things  behind  one,  or  at  a  distance,  in  order 
to  be  safe  from  an  enemy.  From  generations  of  sur- 
vival of  the  most  fit  there  have  developed  human 
eyes  most  sensitive  to  moving  objects  that  are  seen 
out  of  the  corner  of  the  eye.  Even  civilized  man  has 
his  attention  distracted  quickest,  and  most,  by  those 
moving  objects  that  he  sees  the  least  distinctly,  and 
furthest  to  one  side  from  the  direction  in  which  he 
is  looking. 

The  leaf  that  moves  or  the  grass  that  trembles 
may  attract  the  attention  where  seen  "  out  of  the 
corner  of  the  eye  "  to  a  point  where  it  will  even  cause 
a  start  and  a  great  fear. 

As  an  example  of  the  distracting  effect  of  moving 
objects  seen  "  out  of  the  corner  of  the  eye,"  try  read- 
ing a  book  facing  a  window  in  a  car  where  the  mov- 
ing scenery  can  be  seen  on  each  side  of  the  book. 


i6a  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

The  flitting  object  will  interrupt  one,  one  cannot  get 
the  full  meaning  out  of  what  one  is  reading  —  yet 
if  one  lays  down  the  book  and  looks  directly  at  the 
scenery,  the  mind  can  concentrate  to  a  point  where 
one  does  not  see  that  moving  scenery  which  is  di- 
rectly in  front  of  the  eyes. 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  this  power  of  sensi- 
tiveness of  the  corners  of  some  workers'  eyes  from 
that  of  others.  The  first  move  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is  to  place  and  arrange  all  workers,  as  far  as  is 
possible,  in  such  a  position  that  nothing  to  distract 
them  will  be  behind  them,  and  later  to  see  that  the 
eyes  of  workers  are  tested,  that  those  whose  eyes  are 
most  sensitive  may  be  placed  accordingly. 

This  Elimination  May  Take  Place  in  All  Kinds 
of  Work. —  The  necessity  of  removing  all  things 
which  will  distract  the  attention  is  as  great  for  the 
brain  worker  as  for  the  shop  or  construction  worker. 
All  papers  that  attract  the  eye,  and  hence  the  at- 
tention, should  be  cleaned  from  the  desk,  everything 
except  that  on  which  the  worker  is  working.  The 
capability  of  being  distracted  by  the  presence  of 
other  things  varies  in  all  workers. 

In  using  the  dictaphone,  one  can  do  much  better 
work  if  one  is  in  a  room  where  there  is  little  or  noth- 
ing to  distract  attention.  An  outline  of  work  ahead 
may  tempt  to  study  and  planning  of  what  is  ahead, 
rather  than  to  carrying  out  the  task  scheduled  for 
immediate  performance.  The  presence  of  a  paper 
with  an  outline  merely  of  what  is  being  done  is  found 
to  be  a  great  help,  as  the  eye  can  rest  on  that,  and, 
after  a  few  moments,  will  become  so  accustomed  to 


STANDARDIZATION  163 

it  that  the  whole  attention  will  be  given  to  the  dictat- 
ing. 
Benefits  of  Eliminating  "Decision  of  Choice." — 

There  is  always  time  lost  by  "  decision  of  choice." 
The  elimination  of  this  is  well  illustrated  by  the 
bricks  that  are  piled  on  the  packet,  which  decides 
for  the  bricklayer  which  brick  is  next,  making  an 
obvious  sequence,  hence  the  saving  of  time  of  de- 
cision regarding  motions,  also  the  saving  coming 
from  the  play  for  position.  Oftentimes  a  handicap 
of  slow  mental  action  can  be  compensated  for,  in  a 
measure,  by  planning  ahead  in  great  detail.  In  this 
way,  if  the  plan  is  made  sufficiently  in  detail,  there  is 
absolutely  no  time  possible  left  to  be  wasted  in  "  de- 
cision of  choice."  The  worker  goes  from  one  step 
to  another,  and  as  these  steps  are  arranged  logically, 
his  mind  does  not  tend  to  wander  away,  but  to  keep 
on  in  an  uninterrupted  sequence  to  the  goal. 

Standard  Equipment  Important. —  As  for  equip- 
ment, the  phenomena  of  habit  are  among  the  most  im- 
portant features  of  the  psychology  of  management  and 
the  possibilities  of  the  elimination  of  unnecessary 
waste  resulting  from  taking  advantage  of  this  feature 
is  possible  only  when  the  equipment,  surroundings 
and  methods  of  the  worker  are  standardized.  There- 
fore the  insistence  upon  standardization,  even  down 
to  the  smallest  things,  is  vital  for  achieving  the  great- 
est output. 

For  example, —  suppose  the  keys  of  the  monotype 
machine,  piano  or  typewriter  were  not  located  per- 
manently in  the  same  relative  position.  Consider  the 
loss  of  time  in  not  being  able  to  use  habits  in  find- 


i64  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ing  each  key.  Such  an  arrangement  sounds  ridic- 
ulous on  the  face  of  it,  yet  it  is  a  common  practice 
for  many  operators,  especially  of  monotype  ma- 
chines, to  make  a  complete  mental  decision  as  to  the 
muscles  and  fingers  with  which  they  will  strike  the 
desired  key. 

Imagine  the  records  of  output  of  a  typist  who  was 
using  a  different  keyboard  every  day,  if  there  were 
that  many  kinds  of  keyboards.  It  is  easy  for  any- 
one to  conceive  the  great  advantages  of  standard 
keyboards  for  such  machines,  but  only  those  who 
have  made  a  study  of  output  of  all  kinds  of  workers 
can  fully  realize  that  similar  differences  in  sizes  of 
output  are  being  produced  by  the  workers  of  the 
country  for  lack  of  similar  standardization  of  work- 
ing conditions  and  equipment. 

Utmost  Standardization  Does  Not  Make  "Ma- 
chines'* of  the  Workers  Operating  Under  It. —  The 
attention  of  those  who  believe  that  standardization 
makes  machines  out  of  the  workers  themselves,  is 
called  to  the  absence  of  such  effect  upon  the  typist  as 
compared  with  the  scribe,  the  monotype  and  linotype 
operator  as  compared  with  the  compositor,  and  the 
mechanical  computing  machine  operator  as  com- 
pared with  the  arithmetician. 

Standard  Methods  Demand  Standard  Tools  and 
Devices. —  Habits  cannot  be  standardized  until  the 
devices  and  tools  used  are  of  standard  pattern.  It 
is  not  nearly  so  essential  to  have  the  best  tools  as  it 
is  to  have  standard  tools. ^     Experience  in  the  hos- 

8F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  285.  Harper  Ed.,  pp. 
123-124. 


STANDARDIZATION  165 

pitals  points  to  the  importance  of  this  fact  in  surgery. 
Tools  once  adopted  as  standard  should  not  be  changed 
until  the  improvement  or  greater  efficiency  from  their 
use  will  compensate  for  the  loss  during  the  period  of 
"  breaking  in  "  the  user,  that  is,  of  forming  new  habits 
in  order  to  handle  strange  tools.  As  will  be  brought 
out  more  fully  under  "  Teaching,"  good  habits  are  as 
difficult  to  break  as  bad  ones,  the  only  difference  being 
that  one  does  not  usually  desire  to  break  good  ones. 
Naturally,  if  a  new  device  is  introduced,  what  was  an 
excellent  habit  for  the  old  device  becomes,  perhaps, 
a  very  bad  habit  for  the  new  device.  There  must' 
come  a  time  before  the  manipulation  of  the  new 
device  has  become  a  habit  when  output  will  go  down 
and  costs  will  go  up.  It  is  necessary,  before  in- 
troducing this  device,  to  investigate  whether  the  ul- 
timate reduction  of  costs  will  be  sufficient  to  allow 
for  this  period  of  lower  production.  It  is  not  fair, 
however,  to  the  new  device  or  method  really  to  con- 
sider its  record  until  the  use  of  it  has  become  such  a 
habit  with  the  workers  as  was  the  use  of  the  old 
device. 

No  one  who  has  not  nlade  a  study  of  cutting  tools 
can  realize  the  crying  need  for  standardizing  in  that 
field.  Dr.  Taylor  says,  writing  in  the  Revised  "  Shop 
Management"  of  191 1, — "Hardly  a  shop  can  be 
found  in  which  tools  made  from  a  dozen  different 
qualities  of  steel  are  not  used  side  by  side,  in  many 
cases  with  little  or  no  means  of  telling  one  make 
from  another."  ^  The  effect  of  the  slightest  varia- 
tion in  the  shape  or  the  method  of  handling  the  tool 

**F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management ^  revised  191 1,  pp.  124-125. 


i66  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

upon  the  three  dimensions  of  the  work  that  the  tool 
can  do  in  a  given  time,  is  astounding.^"  More  im- 
portant, from  the  psychological  point  of  view,  is  the 
effect  upon  the  mind  of  the  worker  of  seeing  such 
unstandardized  equipment;  of  having  to  stop  to  select 
the  particular  tool  that  he  desires,  and  thus  having 
his  attention  distracted  from  his  work;  and  of  know- 
ing that  his  act  of  judgment  in  so  selecting  is  of  no 
permanent  value,  as  the  next  time  he  needs  a  similar 
tool  he  will  probably  have  to  reselect. 

Standard  Clothing  a  Crying  Need. —  There  is  a 
great  need  today  for  standardization  in  the  field  of 
clothing.  The  idea  prevalent  that  wearing  apparel 
is  attractive  only  when  it  is  "  different "  is  unfor- 
tunate in  its  influence  upon  the  cost  of  living.  How 
much  more  unfortunate  is  it,  when  it  affects  the  mind 
of  the  worker,  and  leads  him  to  look  upon  standard 
working  clothes  with  distaste. 

To  a  careful  observer,  there  is  nothing  more  dis- 
heartening than  a  study  of  workers'  clothes,  especially 
the  clothes  of  women  workers.  Too  warm  clothes 
where  work  requiring  high  temperature  is  done,  with 
no  provision  for  adding  needed  wraps  for  the  trip 
home;  high-heeled  shoes  where  the  worker  must 
stand  at  her  task  for  hours  at  a  time ;  tight  waists  and 
ill  fitting  skirts,  where  every  muscle  should  have  free 
play,= —  these  are  but  examples  of  hundreds  of  places 
where  reforms  are  needed. 

Little  or  no  blame  attaches  to  the  worker  for  this 
state  of  affairs.     Seldom,  if  ever,  does  the  manage- 

10  F.  W.  Taylor,  On  the  Art  of  Cutting  Metals,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  No. 
1119. 


STANDARDIZATION  167 

ment  attempt  to  standardize  working  clothes.  More- 
over, the  underlying  idea  is  not  made  clear  that  such 
clothes  bear  no  resemblance  to  the  meaningless  uni- 
forms which  are  badge  and  symbol  of  service.  They 
resemble  rather  the  blouse  or  pinafore  of  the  artist, 
the  outfit  of  the  submarine  diver  or  the  fireman. 

The  Sports  Present  a  Fine  Example  of  This. —  The 
greatest  advance  toward  standardizing  clothing  has 
come  in  the  sports,  which,  in  many  respects,  present 
admirable  object-lessons.  In  the  tennis  court,  on  the 
links,  on  the  gridiron,  the  diamond,  or  track,  the  gar- 
ment worn  of  itself  does  not  increase  fatigue.  On  the 
contrary,  it  is  so  designed  as  not  to  interfere  with  the 
efficiency  of  the  wearer. 

Management  Should  Provide  Clothing  Stand- 
ards.—  Under  Ultimate  Management  the  most  effi- 
cient clothing  for  any  kind  of  work  will  be  stand- 
ardized. The  expense  of  such  articles  of  clothing 
as  will  add  to  the  quantity  or  quality  of  output  will, 
directly  or  indirectly,  be  borne  by  the  management, 
just  as  it  now  bears  the  expense  for  equipment  and 
tools.  These  essentials  being  supplied,  and  the  un- 
derlying dignity  and  importance  of  standardization 
understood,  the  worker  will  gladly  conform,  and  sup- 
ply the  minor  accessories. 

Such  Standards  Must  Apply  to  All. —  It  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  that  such  standardization,  when 
adopted,  should  apply  to  the  clothing  of  all,  managers 
as  well  as  employes.  When  the  old  pride  in  the 
"  crafts  "  returns,  or  when  efficiency  is  as  universal 
in  the  industrial  world  as  it  is  in  the  world  of  sport, 
—  then  one  may  look  for  results. 


i68  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Effects  of  Such  Standards  Enormous. —  The  effect 
which  such  standardized  clothing  would  have  on  the 
physical  and  mental  well-being  of  the  wearers  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated.  Fatigue  would  be  elim- 
inated, and  the  old  "  joy  in  working "  might  return. 
Not  being  based  upon  looks  alone, —  though  the 
aesthetic  appeal  should  not  be  neglected, —  the 
worker's  ability  to  work  more  and  better  with  greater 
content  of  mind  would  be  the  criterion.  The  suc- 
cess of  the  clothing  would  be  scientifically  measured, 
the  standards  improved,  and  progress  itself  become 
standardized. 

Standard  Methods  Eliminate  Fatigue. —  There  is 
no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  those  who  have  made  it  a 
study,  that  the  constant  receipt  of  the  same  kind  of 
impressions,  caused  by  the  same  kind  of  stimulation 
of  the  same  terminal  sense  organs,  causes  semi-auto- 
matic response  with  less  resulting  fatigue,  correspond- 
ing to  the  lessened  effort.  All  methods  should,  there- 
fore, as  far  as  possible,  be  made  up  of  standard  ele- 
ments under  standard  conditions,  with  standard  de- 
vices and  appliances,  and  they  should  be  standardized 
from  the  standpoint  of  all  of  our  senses  as  to  color, 
shape,  size,  weight,  location,  position  and  surface 
texture,  that  the  worker  may  grasp  at  a  single 
thought  by  means  of  each  or  all  his  senses,  that  no 
special  muscles  or  other  fatiguing  processes  need  be 
operated  to  achieve  the  standard  result  desired. 

Muscles  That  Tire  Easily  Should  Be  Saved.— It 
must  be  remembered  that  all  work  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  the  muscle  that  changes  the  position  or 
shape  of  the  eye  or  the  size  of  its  pupil  should  not 


STANDARDIZATION  169 

be  operated  except  when  necessary.  Care  in  plan- 
ning can  oftentimes  standardize  conditions  so  as  to 
relieve  these  and  other  muscles,  which  grow  tired 
easily,  or  transfer  this  work  to  other  muscles  which 
are  not  so  easily  tired. 

Not  only  do  the  reactions  from  such  standards  re- 
quire less  bodily  effort,  but  it  also  requires  less  mental 
effort  to  work  under  methods  that  are  standardized. 
Therefore,  both  directly  and  indirectly,  the  worker 
benefits  by  the  standardization. 

Rest  from  Fatigue  Is  Provided  for  Scientifically. — 
Scientific  Management  provides  and  prescribes  rest 
for  overcoming  fatigue  of  the  worker  more  scien- 
tifically and  economically  than  he  could  possibly  pro- 
vide it  for  himself.  Weber's  law  is  that  "  our  power 
of  detecting  differences  between  sensations  does  not 
depend  on  the  absolute  amount  of  difference  in  the 
stimuli,  but  on  the  relative  amount."  ^^  The  addi- 
tional fatigue  from  handling  additional  weights  causes 
fatigue  to  increase  with  the  weight,  but  not  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  extra  weight  handled.  When  the 
correct  weight  of  the  unit  to  be  handled  has  been 
determined,  the  additional  weight  will  cause  fatigue 
in  quantities  greater  in  proportion  than  the  extra 
weight  handled. 

Rest  Periods  Arranged  for  Best  Good  of  Work  and 
Worker. —  If  possible,  rest  from  fatigue  is  so  ar- 
ranged as  to  interfere  with  work  the  least.  The 
necessary  rest  periods  of  the  individuals  of  a  gang 
should  come  at  that  period  of  the  cycle  that  does  not 
cause  any  allowance  to  be  made  for  rest  in  between 

1^  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  p.  11. 


170  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

the  performance  of  the  dependent  operations  of  dif- 
ferent members  of  the  gang.  Such  an  arrangement 
will  enable  the  worker  to  keep  a  sustained  interest 
in  the  work. 

Work  with  Animals  Should  Be  Standardized. — 
The  necessity  for  standardizing  work  with  animals 
has  been  greatly  underestimated,  although  it  has  been 
done  more  or  less  successfully  in  systems  for  con- 
struction work.  For  work  with  horses  and  carts, 
the  harnesses  and  the  carts  should  be  standardized 
and  standards  only  should  be  used.  The  instruction 
card  dealing  with  the  action,  motions  and  their 
sequence  should  be  standard  to  save  time  in  changing 
teams  from  the  full  to  the  empty  cart  and  vice  versa. 
While  standardized  action  is  necessary  with  men,  it 
is  even  more  necessary  for  men  in  connection  with 
the  work  of  animals,  such  as  horses,  mules  and  oxen. 
The  instruction  card  for  the  act  of  changing  of  teams 
from  an  empty  cart  to  a  full  cart  should  state  the  side 
that  the  driver  gets  down  from  his  seat  to  the  ground, 
the  sequence  in  which  he  unhooks  the  harness  and 
hooks  it  up  again,  and  the  side  on  which  he  gets  up 
to  his  seat  in  the  cart.  Even  the  wording  of  his  or- 
ders to  his  horse  should  be  standardized. 

While  this  book  will  deal  with  the  human  mind 
only,  it  is  in  order  to  state  that  a  book  could  be 
written  to  advantage  on  training  the  horse  by  means 
of  a  standard  man-horse  language  and  a  standard 
practice  of  their  combined  action. 

Animals  have  not  the  capacity  for  forming  new 
habits  that  they  have  for  remembering  the  sequence 


STANDARDIZATION  171 

of  former  acts.  They  have  little  ability  to  adapt 
themselves  to  a  sequence  of  motions  caused  by  un- 
expected conditions,  unless  those  conditions  suggest 
the  opportunity  of  revenge,  or  the  necessity  of  self- 
preservation,  or  immediate  welfare.  This  is  only 
touched  upon  here  from  the  man  side. 

Naturally,  the  output  earning  power  of  a  man  work- 
ing with  animals  depends  largely  upon  the  handling 
of  the  animal,  and  the  man  can  never  attain  his  full 
output,  or  the  managers  get  what  they  might  expect 
to  get  from  the  man-horse  combination,  until  the  psy- 
chology of  the  horse,  or  mule,  or  elephant,  or  what- 
ever animal  is  used,  is  also  studied  and  combined  with 
the  other  studies  on  Scientific  Management. 

An  example  of  the  benefits  of  standardized  work 
with  animals :  —  The  standard  fire  signals  in  the  Fire 
House  cause  such  perfect  horse  action  that  fire  horses 
always  have  a  reputation  for  superior  intelligence. 

The  Worker  Who  Is  Best  Suited  for  His  Work  in 
the  Performing  Department  Is  Incapable  of  Discover- 
ing the  Best  Method. —  An  exaggerated  case  of  the 
result  of  leaving  the  selection  of  the  method  to  the 
worker  is  that  of  the  West  Indian  negro  who  carried 
the  wheelbarrow  on  his  head.^^  This  well-known 
example,  though  it  seems  impossible  and  absurd,  is 
no  more  inefficient  than  are  hundreds  of  methods  in 
use  in  the  industrial  world  to-day. 

Under  Scientific  Management  Quality  Is  Stand- 
ardized.—  Scientific  Management  determines  exactly 
what  quality  as  well  as  what   quantity  of  work   is 

12  Mary  Whiton  Calkins,  A  First  Book  in  Psychology,  p.  6$. 


I7S  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

needed,  and  the  method  prescribed  is  that  one  not 
only  of  lower  costs,  but  which  fits  the  particular  need 
of  the  particular  occasion  most  accurately. 

Workers  are  kept  under  pressure  for  quality,  yet 
the  pressure  is  not  irksome,  because  the  worker  un- 
derstands exactly  what  quality  is  desired,  and  what 
variations  from  exactness  are  permitted. 

Variations  in  Quality  or  Exactness  Indicated  by 
Standard  Signs. —  AH  dimensions  on  the  drawings  of 
work  have  either  a  letter  or  symbol  or  plus  or  minus 
signs.  There  is  much  to  be  said  about  the  effect 
this  has  on  the  worker. 

1.  It  gives  the  worker  immediate  knowledge  of  the 
prescribed  quality  demanded. 

2.  He  does  not  have  to  worry  as  to  t|ie  maximum 
variation  that  he  can  make  without  interfering  with 
his  bonus. 

3.  There  is  no  fear  of  criticism  or  discharge  for 
using  his  own  faulty  judgment. 

Scientific  Management  Has  a  Standard  "  Method  of 
Attack." — We  must  note  next  the  standard  "  method 
of  attack "  in  Scientific  Management.  It  is  recog- 
nized that  sensations  are  modified  by  those  that 
come  before,  by  those  that  come  simultaneously,  and 
by  those  that  follow.  The  psychic  effect  of  each  and 
every  kind  of  sensation  depends  upon  what  other 
sensations  have  been  experienced,  are  being  experi- 
enced at  that  time,  or  will  presently  be  experienced. 
The  scientific  manager  realizes  this,  and  provides  for 
the  most  desirable  sequence  of  sensation;  then,  hav- 
ing seen,  to  the  best  of  his  ability,  that  the  sensation 
occurs  at  the  time  which  he  desires  it  to  occur,  he 


STANDARDIZATION  173 

provides  for  concentration  upon  that  one  sensation 
and  elimination  of  all  other  thoughts  or  desires. 

Professor  Faraday  says :  "  That  part  of  self-educa- 
tion which  consists  in  teaching  the  mind  to  resist  the 
desires  and  inclinations  until  they  are  proved  to  be 
right  is  the  most  important  of  all."  How  this  is 
shown  under  Scientific  Management  will  be  shown 
in  "  Teaching."  It  is  sufficient  to  say  here  that  the 
method  of  attack  of  Scientific  Management  is  to 
eliminate  all  possible  bodily  as  well  as  mental  exer- 
tion,— '  to  cut  down  motions,  to  cut  down  even  sen- 
sations and  such  mental  acts  as  visualizing.  The  ob- 
ject is,  not  so  much  to  eliminate  these  motions  and 
these  sensations,  and  this  visualizing  from  the  life 
of  the  worker,  as  simply  to  use  up  less  energy  in 
producing  the  output.  This  allows  the  worker  an 
extra  supply  of  energy  upon  which  to  fall  back  to 
produce  greater  output  and  to  get  greater  wages.  If 
his  energy  is  not  all  utilized  in  his  working  hours, 
then,  as  will  be  shown  more  clearly  under  "  Welfare," 
there  is  that  much  more  left  for  him  to  enjoy  in  his 
own  leisure  time. 

SUMMARY 

Result  to  the  Work. —  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment, where  standards  are  not  established,  the  worker 
is  constantly  delayed  by  the  necessity  for  decision  of 
choice,  by  the  lack  of  knowing  what  should  be  chosen, 
and  by  a  dearth  of  standard  equipment,  materials  and 
tools  from  which  to  choose. 

Under  Transitory  Management,  with  the  introduc- 
tion of  standards,  the  elimination  of  delays  and  the 


174  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

provision  for  standard  surroundings  and  supplies  of 
all  kinds,  comes  increased  output  of  the  desired 
quality. 

Under  Scientific  Management,  not  only  is  output 
increased  and  quality  assured,  but  results  of  work  can 
be  predicted.^^ 

Results  to  the  Worker. —  Results  from  standardiza- 
tion to  the  worker  under  Traditional  and  Transitory 
Management  are  the  same  as,  and  are  included  in, 
results  under  Scientific  Management. 

State  of  Worker's  Feelings  Improved. —  Under 
Scientific  Management  the  state  of  the  employe's 
feehngs  is  improved  by  the  standardization.  It  is  a 
recognized  fact  that  mental  disturbance  from  such 
causes  as  fear  of  losing  his  job  will  sometimes  have 
the  same  ill  effect  upon  a  workman  as  does  overwork, 
or  insufficient  rest  for  overcoming  fatigue.  It  will 
occasionally  wear  upon  the  nervous  system  and  the 
digestive  organs.  Now  Scientific  Management  by 
standardization  removes  from  the  workman  this  fear 
of  losing  his  job,  for  the  worker  knows  that  if  he 
conforms  to  the  standard  instructions  he  certainly  will 
not  lose  his  position  unless  the  business  as  a  whole 
is  unsuccessful. 

On  the  other  hand,  feelings,  such  as  happiness  and 
contentment,  and  even  hearing  rhythmic  sounds, 
music,  etc.,  are  an  aid  toward  increasing  output.  For 
the  best  results,  therefore,  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment the  worker  is  furnished  with  standard  condi- 
tions ;  his  train  of  ideas  is  held  upon  the  work  in  hand 
without  interruption,  and  the  working  conditions  are 

18  C.  G.  Earth,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  Vol.  25,  Paper  loio,  p.  46. 


STANDARDIZATION  175 

such  that  the  managers  furnish  the  worker  with  in- 
ducements to  conform  to  the  standard  conditions 
happily. 

Worker's  Retentive  Power  Increased. —  We  note 
in  the  second  place,  the  increased  retentive  power  of 
anyone  who  is  working  with  standards.  There  is 
great  difference  between  different  people  of  the  same 
degree  of  intelligence  as  to  their  ability  to  memorize 
certain  things,  especially  such  as  sequences  of  the 
elements  of  a  process.  This  lack  of  retentive  power 
is  illustrated  particularly  well  in  the  cases  often  found 
where  the  student  has  difficulty  in  learning  to  spell. 
It  is  here  that  the  standard  instruction  card  comes 
into  play  to  good  effect.  Its  great  detail  remedies 
the  defect  in  memorizing  of  certain  otherwise  bril- 
liant workers,  and  its  standard  form  and  repetition  of 
standard  phrases  aid  the  retentive  power  of  the  man 
who  has  a  good  memory. 

Standard  Elements  Serve  as  Memory  Drills. —  This 
use  of  standardized  elements  makes  the  time  elapsing 
between  repetitions  shorter,  for,  while  it  may  be  a 
long  time  before  the  worker  again  encounters  the 
identical  work  or  method,  still,  the  fact  that  elements 
are  standard  means  that  he  will  have  occasion  to  re- 
peat elements  frequently,  and  that  his  memory  will 
each  time  be  further  drilled  by  these  repetitions. 

Gang  Instruction  Card  an  Aid  to  Memory. —  The 
gang  instruction  card  has  been  used  with  good  effect 
at  the  beginning  of  unfamiliar  repetitive  cycles  of 
work  to  train  the  memory  of  whole  gangs  of  men  at 
once,  and  to  cut  down  the  elapsed  time  from  the  time 
when  one  man's  operation  is  sufficiently  completed  to 


175  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

permit  the  next  man  to  commence  his.  It  has  been 
found,  in  the  case  of  setting  timbers  in  mill  construc- 
tion for  example,  that  to  have  one  man  call  out  the 
next  act  in  the  sequence  as  fast  as  the  preceding  one 
is  finished,  until  all  have  committed  the  sequence  to 
memory,  will  materially  decrease  the  time  necessary 
for  the  entire  sequence  of  elements  in  a  cycle  of  work. 

Individual  Instruction  Card  an  Inanimate  Mem- 
ory.—  The  instruction  card  supplies  a  most  accurate 
memory  in  inanimate  form,  that  neither  blurs  nor 
distorts  with  age. 

The  ranter  against  this  standard  memory  is  no 
more  sensible  than  a  man  who  would  advocate  the 
worker's  forgetting  the  result  of  his  best  experience, 
that  his  mind  might  be  periodically  exercised  by  re- 
discovering the  method  of  least  waste  anew  with 
each  problem. 

Other  things  being  equal,  that  worker  has  the  long- 
est number  of  years  of  earning  power  who  remem- 
bers the  largest  number  of  right  methods ;  or  at  least 
remembers  where  to  find  them  described  in  detail; 
and,  conversely,  those  who  have  no  memory,  and 
know  not  where  to  look  for  or  to  lay  their  hand  on 
the  method  of  least  waste,  remain  at  the  beginning 
of  their  industrial  education.  "  Experience,"  from 
an  earning  standpoint,  does  not  exist  when  the  mind 
does  not  retain  a  memory  of  the  method.  The  in- 
struction card,  then,  acts  as  a  form  of  transferable 
memory  —  it  conserves  memory.  Once  it  is  made, 
it  furnishes  the  earning  power  without  the  necessity 
of  the  former  experience  having  been  had  more  than 
once. 


STANDARDIZATION  177 

Plans,  details,  free-hand  sketches,  and  two-dimen- 
sion photographs  surpass  the  highest  form  of  mental 
imagery,  and  such  cultivated  imagery  is  undoubtedly 
a  high  achievement.  There  is  no  kind  of  memory, 
visualization,  nor  constructive  imagination  that  can 
equal  the  stereoscopic  or  three-dimension  photographs 
that  may  accompany  the  instruction  card  for  enabling 
the  worker  to  "  see  the  completed  work  before  it  is 
begun."  Probably  the  greatest  hindrance  to  develop- 
ment of  lower  forms  of  animal  life  is  their  inability 
to  picture  past  experiences,  and  the  reason  for  the 
intellectual  strides  made  by  the  worker  under  Scien- 
tific Management  is  the  development  of  this  faculty. 

A  Conserver  of  Individual  Memories. —  Many  peo- 
ple believe  that  the  memory  of  a  person  ceases  at  his 
death.  Whether  this  is  so  or  not,  the  loss  to  the 
world,  and  particularly  the  industrial  world,  of  not 
having  the  instruction  card  for  the  passing  on  of  the 
worker's  experience  to  the  workers  who  follow  is 
stupendous  and  incalculable,  and  this  loss,  like  so 
many  other  losses,  can  be  eliminated  by  the  process 
of  making  written  standards. 

Motor  Memory  Improved  hy  Standardization. — 
Not  only  are  the  retentive  powers  of  the  brain  im- 
proved, but  also  the  brain  centers,  and  the  muscles, 
etc.,  become  trained  through  standardization.  With 
standardization  a  long  sequence  of  muscular  motions 
or  operations  can  be  noted  at  a  glance,  and  can  be 
remembered  without  difficulty. 

Standards  Prevent  Men  from  Becoming  Ma- 
chines.—  Those  who  object  to  the  worker  taking  ad- 
vantage of  these  scientifically  derived  standards  which 


178  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

aid  the  memory,  can  only  be  compared  to  such  people 
as  desire  the  workers  to  turn  into  unthinking  animals. 
Psychologists  believe  that  some  of  the  lower  animals 
have  no  memory.  Turning  the  workers  into  ma- 
chines which  do  not  in  any  way  utilize  thought-saving 
devices  is  simply  putting  them  but  little  above  the 
class  of  these  lower,  memory-less,  animals. 

Through  Standards  the  Worker's  Attention  Is 
Gained  at  the  Start. —  The  general  act  of  attention 
plays  an  important  part  in  Scientific  Management. 
The  insistence  upon  standardized  performance  re- 
quires the  utmost  attention  at  the  beginning  of  learn- 
ing a  new  method  of  performance.  This  extra  output 
of  mental  activity,  which  is  always  required  for  accom- 
plishing new  methods  of  work,  could  not  be  continu- 
ously maintained,  but  after  the  new  method  has  once 
been  learned,  its  repetition  requires  less  attention,  con- 
sequently less  fatigue.  The  attention  of  the  worker 
is,  therefore,  strongly  demanded  at  the  beginning  and 
when,  later,  it  is  not  needed  except  for  new  and  un- 
familiar work,  an  opportunity  arises  for  invention  and 
mental  advancement. 

Attention  Allowed  to  Lapse  and  Then  Recalled. — 
Standardization  shifts  the  objects  of  attention  and 
eliminates  the  need  for  constant  concentration.  The 
standardization  of  processes  relieves  the  worker  to 
a  marked  extent  from  the  extremely  fatiguing  mental 
effort  of  unproductive  fixed,  valueless,  and  unnecessary 
attention  on  the  stream  of  consciousness.  The  re- 
peated elements  which  form  a  part  of  all  stand- 
ards reconcentrates  the  attention  if  it  is  allowed  to 
lapse. 


STANDARDIZATION  179 

Standardization  Eliminates  the  Shifting  View- 
point.—  Under  old-time  Traditional  Management  the 
way  that  the  man  happened  to  feel  at  the  particular 
time  made  a  great  difference,  not  only  in  his  work, 
but  in  his  relations  with  other  men.  The  standard- 
ization not  only  of  the  relationship  between  the  men, 
but  of  the  relationships  between  the  foreman,  the 
manager,  and  the  worker,  the  fact  that  the  disciplin- 
ing is  put  in  the  hands  of  a  man  who  is  not  biased  by 
his  personal  feelings  in  his  dealings  with  the  men;  — 
all  of  these  things  mean  that  the  viewpoint  of  the 
men  as  to  their  work  and  their  relationship  remains 
fixed.  This  standardizing  of  the  viewpoint  is  an  enor- 
mous help  toward  increasing  output. 

The  Common  Viev^oint  Is  an  Impetus. —  There 
are  those  who  believe  that  the  concerted  standard 
process  of  thought  of  the  many  minds  assists  the 
operation  of  any  one  mind.  However  this  may  be, 
there  is  no  doubt  that  the  fact  that  the  standard 
thought  is  present  in  all  minds  at  one  time  at  least 
eliminates  some  cause  for  discussion  and  leads  to  unity 
and  consequent  success  in  the  work. 

Invention  Is  Stimulated. —  Chances  for  invention 
and  construction  are  provided  by  standardization.^* 
By  having  a  scientifically  derived  standard  method  as 
a  starter,  the  worker  can  exert  much  of  his  mental 
power  toward  improvement  from  that  point  upward, 
instead  of  being  occupied  with  methods  below  it  and 
in  wasting,  perhaps,  a  lifetime  in  striving  to  get.  up 

^*  Charles  Babbage,  On  the  Economy  of  Machinery  and  Manu- 
factures, Sees.  224-225.  Adam  Smith,  Wealth  of  Nations,  Book 
I,  chap.  I,  p.  4. 


i8o  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

to  it,^^  this  in  distinction  to  the  old  plan,  where  a 
worker  knew  only  what  he  could  personally  remem- 
ber of  what  had  been  handed  down  by  tradition,  tra- 
dition being  the  memory  of  society.  Under  Scientific 
Management  a  worker  has  many  repetitions  of  ex- 
perience, some  of  which  he  does  not  always  recognize 
as  such.  When  he  does  recognize  them,  he  has  the 
power  and  daring  for  rapid  construction  that  come 
to  those  only  who  "  know  that  they  know." 

Standardization  of  ultimate  subdivisions,  as  such, 
brings  that  power  to  the  worker  sooner.  The  con- 
scious knowledge  of  familiarity  of  process  is  an  es- 
sential for  attaining  the  complete  benefits  of  experi- 
ence. 

Far  from  making  machines  out  of  the  men,  stand- 
ardization causes  a  mental  state  that  leads  to  inven- 
tion, for  the  reason  that  the  worker's  brain  is  in  most 
intimate  contact  with  the  work,  and  yet  has  not  been 
unnecessarily  fatigued  by  the  work  itself.  No  more 
monotonous  work  could  be  cited  than  that  of  that  boy 
whose  sole  duty  was  to  operate  by  hand  the  valve 
to  the  engine,  yet  he  invented  the  automatic  control 
of  the  slide  valve  used  throughout  the  world  to-day. 
Standardization  Prevents  Accidents. —  The  results 
of  standardization  so  far  given,  concern  changes  in 
the  worker's  mental  capacity,  or  attitude.  Such 
changes,  and  other  changes,  will  be  discussed  from  a 
different  viewpoint  under  "  Teaching."  As  for  re- 
sults to  the  worker's  body,  one  of  the  most  important 
is  the  elimination  of  causes  for  accidents. 

The   rigid   inspection,   testing,    and   repairing  pro- 
is  F.  W.  Taylor,  paper  1119,  A.  S.  M,  E.,  para.  51;  para.  98-100. 


STANDARDIZATION  i8i 

vided  for  by  Scientific  Management  provides  against 
accidents  from  defects  in  equipment,  tools,  or  mate- 
rial. The  fact  that  instructions  are  written,  provides 
against  v^rong  methods  of  handling  work.^®  The  con- 
centrated attention  caused  by  standardization,  is  a 
safeguard  against  accidents  that  occur  from  the 
MTorker's  carelessness."  The  proper  allowance  of 
rest  for  overcoming  fatigue,  insures  that  the  worker's 
mind  is  fresh  enough  to  enable  him  to  comply  with 
standards,  and,  finally,  the  spirit  of  cooperation  that 
underlies  Scientific  Management  is  an  added  check 
against  accidents,  in  that  everyone  is  guarding  his 
fellows  as  well  as  himself. 

Progress  of  Standardization  Assured. —  As  Scien- 
tific Management  becomes  older,  progress  will  be 
faster,  because  up  to  this  time  there  has  been  a  hin- 
drance standing  in  the  way  of  rapid  advancement  of 
the  best  standards.  This  hindrance  has  been  the 
tendency  of  habits  of  thought  coinciding  with  former 
practice.  For  example,  the  design  of  concrete  build- 
ing for  years  followed  the  habit  of  thinking  in  terms 
of  brick,  or  wood,  or  steel,  and  then  attempting  to 
design  and  construct  in  reinforced  concrete.  Again, 
in  the  case  of  the  motor  car,  habits  of  thinking  in 
vehicles  drawn  by  animals  for  years  kept  the  design 
unnecessarily  leaning  toward  that  of  horse  vehicles. 
As  soon  as  thought  was  in  terms  of  power  vehicles, 
the  efficient  motor  truck  of  to-day  was  made,  using 
the  power  also  for  power  loading  and  power  hoist- 

^8  F.  A.  Parkhurst,  Applied  Methods  of  ScientvUc  Management, 
Industrial  Engineering,  Oct.  1911,  p.  251. 

17  H.  L.  Gantt,  paper  928,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  para.  15. 


i82  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ing,  as  is  now  done  in  motor  trucks  specially  designed 
for  transporting  and  handling  pianos  and  safes.  So, 
also,  while  the  thought  was  of  traditional  practice, 
standard  practice  was  held  back.  Now  that  the 
theories  of  standardization  are  well  understood, 
standardization  and  standards  in  general  can  advance 
with  great  rapidity. 


CHAPTER  VII 
RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES 

Definition  of  Record. — ^A  record  is,  according  to 
the  Century  Dictionary  —  "  something  set  down  in 
writing  or  delineated  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
memory ;  specifically  a  register ;  an  authentic  or  official 
copy  of  any  writing,  or  an  account  of  any  fact 
and  proceedings,  whether  public  or  private,  usually 
entered  in  a  book  for  preservation;  also  the  book 
containing  such  copy  or  account."  *  The  synonyms 
given  are  "  note,  chronicle,  account,  minute,  mem- 
orandum." 

Few  Written  Records  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment.— For  the  purposes  of  this  preliminary  study  of 
records,  emphasis  will  be  laid  on  the  fact  that  the 
record  is  written.  Under  Traditional  Management 
there  are  practically  no  such  labor  records.  What 
records  are  kept  are  more  in  the  nature  of  "  book- 
keeping records,"  as  Gillette  and  Dana  call  them, 
records  "  showing  debits  and  credits  between  different 
accounts."  In  many  cases,  under  Traditional  Man- 
agement, not  even  such  records  of  profit  or  loss  from 
an  individual  piece  of  work  were  kept,  the  manager, 
in  extreme  cases,  oftentimes  "  keeping  his  books  in 

1  Gillette  and  Dana,  Cost  Keeping  and  Management  Engineering, 
p.  6s. 

183 


i84  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

his  head  "  and  having  only  the  vaguest  idea  of  the 
state  of  his  finances. 

Importance  of  Records  Realized  Under  Transitory 
Management. —  As  has  been  amply  demonstrated  in 
discussing  Individuality  and  Standardization,  the  rec- 
ognition of  the  value  of  records  is  one  of  the  first 
indications  of  Transitory  Management.  Since  this 
stage  of  management  has  Scientific  Management  in 
view  as  "  a  mark  to  come  to,"  the  records  evolved 
and  used  are  not  discarded  by  Scientific  Manage- 
ment, but  are  simply  perfected.  Therefore,  there  is 
no  need  to  discuss  these  transitory  records,  except  to 
say  that,  from  the  start,  quality  of  records  is  insisted 
upon  before  quantity  of  records. 

No  "Bookkeeping"  Records  Under  Scientific 
Management. —  Under  Scientific  Management  there 
are  no  "  bookkeeping  records  "  kept  of  costs  as  such. 
Instead,  there  are  "  time  and  cost  records,"  so  called, 
of  the  time  and  efficiency  of  performance.  From 
these,  costs  can  be  deduced  at  any  time.  Items  of 
cost  v^^ithout  relation  to  their  causes,  on  work  that 
is  not  to  be  repeated,  have  little  value.  Cost  records, 
as  such,  usually  represent  a  needless,  useless  expendi- 
ture of  time  and  money.  It  must  be  emphasized  that 
Scientific  Management  can  in  no  way  be  identified 
with  "  cost  keeping,"  in  the  sense  that  is  understood 
to  mean  aimlessly  recording  unrelated  costs.  Under 
Scientific  Management  costs  are  an  ever-present  by- 
product of  the  system,  not  a  direct  product. 

Records  Must  Lower  Costs  and  Simplify  Work. — < 
The  quantity  of  records  that  should  be  made  depends 
on  the  amount,  diversity  and  state  of  development 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        185 

of  the  work  done.  No  record  should  be  made,  which 
does  not,  directly  or  indirectly,  actually  reduce  costs 
or  in  some  way  increase  efficiency.  The  purpose  of 
the  records,  as  of  Scientific  Management  in  general, 
is  to  simplify  work.  Only  when  this  is  recognized, 
can  the  records  made  be  properly  judged.  Numerous 
as  they  may  at  times  seem  to  be,  their  number  is  de- 
termined absolutely  by  the  satisfactory  manner  in 
which  they  — 

1.  Reduce  costs. 

2.  Simplify  work. 

3.  Increase  efficiency. 

Records  of  Work  and  Workers. —  Records  may  be 
of  the  work  or  of  the  worker  ^ —  that  is  to  say,  of  ma- 
terial used,  tools  used,  output  produced,  etc.,  or  of 
individual  efficiency,  in  one  form  or  another.  Records 
of  efficiency  may  be  of  workers,  of  foremen,  and 
of  managers,  and  a  record  may  be  made  of  any  man 
in  several  capacities ;  for  example,  a  record  is  kept  of 
a  functional  foreman  in  the  form  of  the  work  of  the 
men  who  are  under  him,  while  another  record  might 
be  kept  of  him  as  a  worker  himself;  for  example,  the 
time  being  taken  that  it  took  him  to  teach  others 
their  duties,  the  time  to  learn  what  was  to  be  done 
on  any  n€w  work,  etc. 

Records  of  Initiative. —  Records  of  initiative  are 
embodied  in  the  Suggestion  Card.  Even  under  ad- 
vanced Traditional  Management  the  cards  are  fur- 
nished to  the  men  upon  which  to  write  any  ideas  as 
to  improvements.  These  suggestions  are  received, 
and,  if  accepted,  are  rewarded. 

2  H.  L.  Gantt,  Paper  No.  1002,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  page  2. 


i86  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Under  Scientific  Management  such  suggestions  be- 
come more  valuable,  for,  as  has  been  shown,  they  are 
based  upon  standards;  thus  if  accepted,  they  signify 
not  only  a  real,  but  a  permanent  improvement.  Their 
greatest  value,  however,  is  in  the  stimulus  that  they 
furnish  to  the  worker,  in  the  information  that  they 
furnish  the  management  as  to  which  workers  are  in- 
terested, and  in  the  spirit  of  cooperation  that  they 
foster. 

The  worker  receives  not  only  a  money  reward,  but 
also  publicity,  for  it  is  made  known  which  worker 
has  made  a  valuable  suggestion.  This  indicates  that 
the  worker  has  shown  good  judgment.  His  interest 
is  thus  stimulated,  his  attention  is  held  to  his  work, 
and  the  habit  of  initiative  comes  to  him.  That  this 
habit  of  initiative  can  be  fostered,-  is  shown  by  the 
actual  fact  that  in  many  sorts  of  work  the  same  man 
constantly  makes  suggestions.  It  becomes  a  habit 
with  him  to  look  for  the  new  way,  and  as  he  is  con- 
stantly rewarded,  the  interest  is  not  allowed  to  di- 
minish. 

Records  of  Good  Behavior. —  Records  of  good  be- 
havior are  incorporated  in  the  White  List  File.  The 
White  List  File  contains  the  names  of  all  men  who 
have  ever  been  employed  who  merit  a  recommenda- 
tion, if  they  should  go  to  work  for  others,  and  would 
deserve  to  be  given  work  as  soon  as  possible,  if  they 
came  back.  This  White  List  File  should  be  filled  out 
with  many  details,  but  even  if  it  contains  nothing  but 
a  record  of  the  names,  and  the  addresses  where  the 
men  can  be  reached  when  new  work  starts  up,  it  has 
a    stimulating   effect   upon   the   worker.     He    feels, 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        187 

again,  the  element  of  permanence ;  there  is  a  place 
for  individuality,  and  not  only  does  the  manager  have 
the  satisfaction  of  actually  having  this  list,  and  of 
using  it,  but  a  feeling  that  his  men  know  that  he  is 
in  some  way  recognizing  them,  and  endeavoring  to 
make  them  and  their  good  work  permanent. 

Records  of  Achievement. —  Records  of  achievement 
vary  with  the  amount  and  nature  of  the  work  done. 
Such  records  are,  as  far  as  possible,  marked  upon 
programmes. 

Records  Made  by  Worker  Where  Possible. — 
Wherever  possible  the  worker  makes  his  own  records. 
Even  when  this  is  not  advisable  he  is  informed  of 
his  record  at  as  short  intervals  as  are  practicable.^ 

Records  Made  on  the  "  Exception  Principle.'* — 
Much  time  is  saved  by  separating  records  for  the 
inspection  of  the  man  above,  simply  having  him  ex- 
amine the  exceptions  to  some  desired  condition, — 
the  records  which  are  exceptionally  good,  the  records 
which  are  exceptionally  bad.  This  not  only  serves 
as  a  reward  to  the  man  who  has  a  good  record,  and  a 
punishment  for  the  man  who  has  had  a  bad  record, 
but  it  also  enables  the  manager  to  discover  at  once 
what  is  wrong  and  where  it  is  wrong,  and  to  remedy 
it. 

The  value  of  the  exception  principle  can  hardly  be 
overestimated.  It  would  be  of  some  value  to  know 
of  exceptionally  good  or  poor  work,  even  if  the  cause 
were  not  known.  At  least  one  would  be  made  to  ob- 
serve the   signpost   of   success   or   of   danger.     But, 

3  Gillette  and  Dana,  Cost  Keeping  and  Management  Engineering, 
p.  VII. 


x88  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

under  Scientific  Management,  the  cause  appears  sim- 
ultaneously with  the  fact  on  the  record, —  thus  not 
only  indicating  the  proper  method  of  repeating  suc- 
cess, or  avoiding  failure,  in  the  future,  but  also  show- 
ing, and  making  clear,  the  direct  relation  of  cause 
to  effect,  to  the  worker  himself. 

This  Discussion  Necessarily  Incomplete. —  The 
records  mentioned  above  are  only  a  few  of  the  types 
of  records  under  Scientific  Management.  Discussion 
has  been  confined  to  these,  because  they  have  the 
most  direct  effect  upon  the  mind  of  the  worker  and 
the  manager.  Possible  records  are  too  numerous, 
and  too  diverse,  to  be  described  and  discussed  in  de- 
tail. They  constitute  a  part  of  the  "  how  "  of  Scien- 
tific Management, —  the  manner  in  which  it  operates. 
This  is  covered  completely  in  the  literature  of  Scien- 
tific Management,  written  by  men  who  have  made 
Scientific  Management  and  its  installation  a  life  study. 
We  need  only  further  discuss  the  posting  of  records, 
and  their  effect. 

Posting  of  Records  Beneficial. —  As  has  been  al- 
ready noted  under  Individuality,  and  must  be  again 
noted  under  Incentives,  much  benefit  is  derived  from 
posting  records,  especially  when  these  are  of  such  a 
character,  or  are  so  posted,  that  the  worker  may  see 
at  a  glance  the  comparative  excellence  of  his  results. 

SUMMARY 

Results  of  Records  to  the  Work.* — The  results  of 
recording  are  the  same  under  all  forms  of  manage- 
ment, if  the  records  are  correct. 

*  H.  L.  Gantt,  Paper  No.  1002,  A,  S.  M.  E.,  p.  1336. 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        iSg 

Output  increases  where  records  are  kept.  Under 
Traditional  Management  there  is  the  danger  that 
pressure  for  quantity  will  affect  quality,  especially  if 
insufficient  records  of  the  resultant  quality  are  kept. 
Under  Transitory  and  Scientific  Management,  quality 
is  maintained  or  improved,  both  because  previous 
records  set  the  standard,  and  because  following  rec- 
ords exhibit  the  quality. 

Results  to  the  Worker. —  James  says,  "  A  man's 
social  use  is  the  recognition  which  he  gets  from  his 
mates.  We  are  not  only  gregarious  animals,  liking 
to  be  liked  in  sight  of  our  fellow,  but  we  have  an 
innate  propensity  to  get  ourselves  noticed,  and  no- 
ticed favorably,  by  our  kind.  No  more  fiendish  pun- 
ishment could  be  devised,  were  such  a  thing  phys- 
ically possible,  than  that  one  should  be  turned  loose 
in  society  and  remain  absolutely  unnoticed  by  all  the 
members  thereof.  If  no  one  turned  around  when  we 
entered,  answered  when  we  spoke  or  minded  what  we 
did,  but  if  every  person  we  met  '  cut  us  dead '  and 
acted  as  if  we  were  non-existing  things,  a  kind  of 
rage  and  impotent  despair  would  ere  long  well  up  in 
us,  from  which  the  crudest  bodily  tortures  would  be 
a  relief;  for  these  would  make  us  feel  that,  however 
bad  might  be  our  plight,  we  had  not  sunk  to  such  a 
depth  as  to  be  unworthy  of  attention  at  all."  ^  This 
recognition  the  worker  gets  partly  through  the 
records  which  are  made  of  him. 

Self-Knowledge  Attained  Through  Records. — 
Through  records  of  output,  and  especially  through 
charts  of  such  records,  and  timed  motion-picture  films, 

^  William  James,  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  p.  179. 


igo  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

or  micro-motion  study  pictures  the  worker  may,  if 
he  be  naturally  observant,  or  if  he  be  taught  to  ob- 
serve, gain  a  fine  knowledge  of  himself. 

The  constant  exhibit  of  cause  and  effect  of  the  re- 
lation of  output  to,  for  example, —  drink  of  alcoholic 
beverages;  to  smoking;  to  food  values;  to  nutrition; 
to  family  worries;  and  to  other  outside  influences;  — 
in  fact,  the  effects  of  numerous  different  modes  of  liv- 
ing, are  shown  promptly  to  the  worker  in  the  form  of 
records. 

Two  things  should  here  be  noted: 

1.  The  necessity  of  having  more  accurate  records 
of  the  worker  and  the  work,  that  the  relation  of 
cause  to  effect  may  be  more  precise  and  authentic. 

2.  The  necessity  for  so  training  the  worker,  before, 
as  well  as  after,  he  enters  the  industrial  world,  that 
he  can  better  understand  and  utilize  the  lesson  taught 
by  his  own  records  and  those  of  others. 

Educative  Value  of  Worker  Making  His"  Own 
Record. — ^  Under  Scientific  Management  in  its  most 
highly  developed  form,  the  worker  makes  his  own 
records  on  his  return  cards  and  hands  them  in.  The 
worker  thus  not  only  comes  to  realize,  by  seeing  them 
and  by  writing  them  down,  what  his  records  are,  but 
he  also  realizes  his  individual  position  to-day  compared 
to  what  it  was  yesterday,  and  compared  to  that  of  his 
fellows  in  the  same  line  of  work.  Further,  he  gains 
accuracy,  he  gains  judgment,  he  gains  a  method  of 
attack.  He  realizes  that,  as  the  managers  are  more 
or  less  recorders,  so  also  he,  in  recording  himself,  is 
vitally  connected  with  the  management.  It  is,  after 
all,  more  or  less  an  attitude  of  mind  which  he  gains 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        191 

by  making  out  these  records  himself.  It  is  because 
of  this  attitude  of  mind,  and  of  the  value  which  it  is 
to  him,  that  he  is  made  to  make  out  his  own  record 
under  the  ultimate  form  of  management,  even  though 
at  times  this  may  involve  a  sacrifice  of  the  time  in 
which  he  must  do  it,  and  although  he  may  work 
slower  than  could  a  specialist  at  recording,  who  per- 
haps would,  in  spite  of  that,  be  paid  less  for  doing  the 
work. 

Exact  Knowledge  Valuable. —  We  cannot  em- 
phasize too  often  in  this  connection  the  far-reaching 
psychological  effect  upon  the  worker  of  exact  knowl- 
edge of  the  comparative  efficiency  of  methods.  The 
value  of  this  is  seldom  fully  appreciated;  for  example, 
we  are  familiar  with  the  many  examples  where  the 
worker  has  been  flattered  until  he  believes  that  he 
cannot  make  mistakes  or  do  inefficient  work.  This 
is  most  often  found  where  the  glow^ing  compliments 
to  the  manufacturing  department,  found  in  the  ad- 
vertising pages  of  the  magazine  and  in  the  praises 
sung  in  print  by  the  publicity  department,  oftentimes 
ends  in  an  individual  overconfidence.  This  unjusti- 
fied self-esteem  is  soon  shattered  by  accurate  com- 
parative records. 

On  the  other  hand,  hazing  of  the  new  worker  and 
the  sneers  of  the  jealous,  accompanied  by  such  trite 
expressions  as  — "  You  can't  teach  an  old  dog  new 
tricks,"  have  often  destroyed  self-confidence  in  a 
worker,  who,  in  the  absence  of  accurate  records  of  his 
efficiency,  is  trying  to  judge  himself  at  new  methods. 
The  jibes  and  jokes  at  the  new  man  at  the  new  work, 
and  especially  at  the  experienced,  efficient  man  at  un- 


192  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

familiar  work  cease,  or  at  least  are  wholly  impotent, 
so  far  as  discouraging  the  man  is  concerned,  provided 
the  worker  sees  by  the  records  of  a  true  measuring 
device,  or  method,  that  his  work  compares  favorably 
with  others  of  the  same  experience,  made  under  the 
same  conditions. 

Definition  of  Programme. —  The  word  "  pro- 
gramme "  is  defined  by  the  Century  Dictionary  as 
"  a  method  of  operation  or  line  of  procedure  prepared 
or  announced  beforehand.  An  outline  or  abstract  of 
something  to  be  done  or  carried  out." 

Two  Meanings  of  "Programme"  in  Management. — 
The  word  "  programme  "  has  two  meanings  in  man- 
agement. 

1.  the  work,  as  it  comes  to  the  management  to  be 
done 

2.  the  work  as  it  is  planned  out  by  the  managers, 
and  handed  over  to  the  worker  to  be  done. 

Programme  as  here  used  is  a  plan  for  doing  work, 
the  plan  which  the  planning  department  lays  out  and 
hands  over  for  the  performers,  or  the  workers,  to  do. 

Under  Traditional  Management  No  Accurate  Pro- 
gramme Is  Possible. — -  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment the  plan  is  at  best  a  repetition  of  records  of  un- 
scientifically planned  work.  The  most  that  the  man- 
agers can  hope  to  do  is  to  lay  out  the  time  in  which 
they  expect,  after  consulting  previous  elapsed  time 
records,  the  work  to  be  done.  Methods  are  not 
prescribed,  so  there  is  no  assurance  that  the  calendar 
will  be  followed,  for  the  times  are  set  by  guess, 
or  at  best  by  referring  to  old  unscientifically  made 
records. 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES  193 

Under  Transitory  Management  Calendars  Can  Be 
Designed. —  Under  Transitory  Management,  with  the 
introduction  of  systems,  that  is,  records  of  how  the 
work  has  been  done  best  at  various  times,  come  meth- 
ods and  a  possibility  of  a  more  exact  calendar.  There 
is  some  likelihood  under  Transitory  System  of  the 
work  being  done  on  time,  as  the  method  has  been 
considered  and,  in  many  cases,  is  specified. 

Under  Scientific  Management  Accurate  Calendars 
Possible. —  Under  Scientific  Management  pro- 
grammes are  based  on  accurate  records  scientifically 
made  and  standardized,  and  a  calendar  may  be  made 
that  can  be  conformed  to  with  exactness. 

Programmes  a  Matter  of  Routing. —  The  problems 
of  a  programme  under  Scientific  Management  are 
two,  both  problems  of  routing:   - 

1.  to  route  materials  to  the  work  place. 

2.  to  route  the  worker  to  the  placed  materials. 
At  first  glance  it  might  seem  simpler  to  consider 

the  worker  as  static  and  the  materials  as  in  motion. 
The  "  routing "  of  the  worker  is  really  often  not  a 
question  of  motion  at  all,  as  the  worker,  if  he  were 
operating  a  machine,  for  example,  would  not  change 
his  position  between  various  pieces  of  work  —  except 
to  rest  from  fatigue  —  enough  to  be  considered.  The 
word  "  routing "  is  used  figuratively  as  regards  the 
worker.  He  is  considered  as  transported  by  the  man- 
agement through  the  day's  work. 

But,  whether  the  work  move,  or  the  worker,  or  both, 
programmes  must  so  plan  out  the  progress  of  each, 
in  detail,  for  as  many  days  ahead  as  possible,  that  the 
most  efficient  outcome  will  ensue. 


194  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Routing  of  Work. —  The  work  is  routed  through 
schedules  of  materials  to  buy,  schedules  of  material 
to  handle,  and  schedules  of  labor  to  be  performed. 
The  skilled  worker  finds  all  the  materials  for  his  work 
ready  and  waiting  for  him  when  he  arrives  at  the  task, 
this  being  provided  for  by  programmes  made  out 
many  tasks  ahead. 

Routing  of  Workers. —  The  workers  themselves 
are  routed  by  means  of  the  route  sheet,  route  chart, 
pin  plan  and  bulletin  board. 

The  devices  for  laying  out  the  work  of  the  workers 
appeal  to  the  imagination  as  well  as  the  reason.  The 
route  chart  is  a  graphical  representation  of  a  large 
river,  starting  with  the  small  stream, —  the  first  opera- 
tion, gathering  to  itself  as  the  tributaries,  the  various 
other  operations, —  till  it  reaches  its  full  growth,  the 
completed  work. 

The  pin  plan,  with  each  pin  or  flag  representing  a 
worker,  or  work  place,  and  following  his  progress  on 
a  plan  of  the  work,  presents  a  bird's-eye  view  in 
miniature  of  the  entire  working  force ;  and  the  bulletin 
board,  with  its  cards  that  represent  work  ahead,  not 
only  eliminates  actual  delay  of  shifting  from  one  task 
to  another,  but  permits  studying  out  one  task  while 
doing  another,  and  also  destroys  all  fear  of  delay 
between  jobs. 

Impossibility  of  Describing  Routing  Devices  Ac- 
curately.—  These  routing  devices  might  all  be  de- 
scribed at  length,  but  no  description  could  do  them 
justice.  A  visit  to  a  shop,  or  factory,  or  other  in- 
dustrial organization  operating  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement is  necessary,  in  order  to  appreciate  not  only 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        195 

their  utility,  but  the  interest  that  they  arouse.  These 
programmes  are  no  dead,  static  things.  They  are  alive, 
pulsing,  moving,  progressing  with  the  progress  of 
the  work. 

Prophecy  Becomes  Possible  Under  Scientific  Man- 
agement.—  The  calendar,  or  chronological  chart,  be- 
comes a  true  prophecy  of  what  will  take  place.  This 
is  based  on  the  standardized  elementary  units,  and 
the  variations  from  it  will  be  so  slight  as  to  allow  of 
being  disregarded. 

SUMMARY 

Results  of  Programme  to  the  Work. —  Under  Tra- 
ditional Management  the  tentative  calendar  might 
cause  speed,  but  could  not  direct  speed.  Under 
Transitory  Management  elimination  of  waste  by 
prescribed  methods  and  routing  increases  output. 
This  increase  becomes  greater  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement. Standardized  routing  designs  the  shortest 
paths,  the  least  wasteful  sequence  of  events,  the  most 
efficient  speed,  the  most  fitting  method.  The  result 
is  more  and  better  work. 

Results  of  Programmes  to  the  Worker. —  A  pro- 
gramme clarifies  the  mind,  is  definite.  The  Traditional 
worker  was  often  not  sure  what  he  had  better  do  next. 
The  worker  under  Scientific  Management  knows  ex- 
actly what  he  is  to  do,  and  where  and  how  he  is  to 
do  it. 

The  attention  is  held,  a  field  of  allied  interests  are 
provided  for  possible  lapses,  as  are  also  methods  for 
recalling  attention. 

The  programme  provides  for  a  look  ahead,  and  the 


196  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

relief  that  comes  from  seeing  the  path  before  one. 
This  ability  to  foresee  also  leads  to  a  feeling  of 
stability.  The  knowledge  that  there  is  a  large 
amount  of  work  ahead,  ready  to  be  attacked  with  no 
delay,  eliminates  anxiety  as  to  future  employment. 
This  allows  of  concentration  on  the  work  in  hand,  and 
a  feeling  that,  this  work  being  properly  done,  one  is 
free  to  turn  to  the  next  piece  of  work  with  the  ab- 
solute assurance  that  what  has  been  done  will  be 
satisfactory. 

Relation  Between  Records  and  Programmes. —  No 
discussion  of  records  and  programmes  would  be  com- 
plete that  did  not  consider  the  relation  between  them. 

Importance  of  This  Relation. —  The  relation  be- 
tween records  and  programmes  in  the  various  types  of 
management  is  most  important,  for  the  progress  from 
one  type  to  another  may  be  studied  as  exemplified  in 
the  change  in  these  relations. 

A  Broadening  of  the  Definitions. —  In  order  to  un- 
derstand more  plainly  the  complexity  of  this  relation, 
we  will  not  confine  ourselves  here  to  the  narrower 
definition  of  a  record  as  a  written  account,  but  will 
consider  it  to  mean  a  registering  of  an  experience  in 
the  mind,  whether  this  expresses  itself  in  a  written 
record  or  not.  A  programme  will,  likewise,  be  a  men- 
tal plan. 

Many  Possible  T37pes  of  Records  and  Pro- 
grammes.—  In  order  to  understand  the  number  of 
different  types  of  records  and  programmes  that  can  be 
made  for  a  worker,  the  table  that  follows  may  be  ex- 
amined (Table  I).  It  exemplifies  twelve  possible 
records  and  twelve  possible  programmes. 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES 


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198  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Interrelation  of  These  Types. —  The  man  is  classi- 
fied first,  as  working  for  himself,  or  working  for  an- 
other. There  will  usually  be  a  fundamental  differ- 
ence, at  the  outset,  in  the  minds  of  these  two  men,  for 
the  man  working  for  himself  will  be  of  a  more  inde- 
pendent cast  of  thought.  There  will  be  no  question 
as  to  the  man's  output  showing  up  separately,  unless 
he  chooses  to  prevent  this  by  having  others  work 
with  him.  Neither  will  there  be  any  question  but 
that,  if  a  record  is  made,  he  makes  it  himself,  unless 
someone  who  is  not  vitally  connected  with  the  work, 
as  some  onlooker,  interested  or  disinterested,  should 
make  the  records  for  him.  But  the  typical  case  of 
the  man  working  for  himself  would  be  that  he  was 
working  as  an  individual,  and  that  the  record  was 
made  by  himself.  There  would  then  be  four  kinds  of 
records  —  an  unconscious  record,  a  conscious  record 
not  written,  a  written  record  and  a  standardized  rec- 
ord. The  "  unconscious  record  "  would  be,  in  reality, 
no  record  at  all.  It  would  simply  be,  that  some- 
where in  the  man's  mind  there  would  be  a  record  of 
what  he  had  done,  which,  except  as  a  "  fringe  of  con- 
sciousness "  would  not  particularly  influence  his  pro- 
gramme. What  we  mean  by  a  "  conscious  record  " 
would  be  more  of  a  set  habit,  the  man  knowing  that 
he  had  done  the  work  in  a  certain  way.  This  would 
begin  to  influence,  more  or  less,  his  programme,  and 
also  his  knowledge  of  his  capacity  for  work.  With  a 
written  record,  would  come  a  thorough  knowledge 
on  his  part  of  what  he  had  done  and  how  he  had  done 
it,  and  we  must  note  that  with  this  written  record 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES  199 

comes  the  possibility  for  some  sort  of  a  set  pro- 
gramme, the  man  knowing  what  it  will  be  possible  to 
do,  and  how  he  had  best  do  it.  With  the  standardized 
record  comes  the  standardized  method. 

Relationships  Complex. —  When  we  consider  the 
man  working  for  another,  he  may  either  be  one  of 
a  gang,  or  one  whose  work  is  considered  as  that  of 
an  individual.  In  either  case,  any  of  the  four  sorts 
of  records  can  be  made  of  his  work  that  have  been 
already  described  for  the  man  working  for  himself. 
Each  one  of  these  records  may  be  made  by  the  man, 
or  by  the  management;  for  with  the  man  working 
for  another,  naturally  the  second  mind,  that  of  the 
other,  or  the  manager,  enters  in,  and  a  great  many 
more  combinations  are  possible. 

For  example, —  there  might  be  an  unconscious 
record  made  by  the  man  and  a  conscious  record,  or 
a  written  record,  made  by  the  manager.  There  might 
be  a  conscious  record  made  by  the  man,  but  an  un- 
conscious or  a  written  record  made  by  the  manager, 
etc.  There  are  too  many  combinations  made  to  be 
here  considered.  Each  one  of  these  combinations 
would  have  a  definite  and  a  different  effect,  both  upon 
the  mind  of  the  man,  and  upon  the  mind  of  the  man- 
ager; and  also  upon  their  relation  to  each  other.  The 
second  half  of  this  chart  is  similar,  but  treats  of  pro- 
grammes, as  many  variables  enter  here. 

It  may  be  thought  that  the  details  of  the  preceding 
chart  and  the  three  following  charts  are  uninteresting, 
obvious,  and  show  too  many  possible  combinations. 
If  this  be  so,  then  it  is  most  necessary  to  include  them 


200  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

to  illustrate  the  conditions  that  are  passed  through 
and  slipped  back  into  too  often  in  our  schools,  our 
apprenticeship  and  in  all  but  the  best  of  managements. 

The  outline  of  advancement  must  be  known  and 
recognized  if  the  quality  of  teaching,  efficiency,  and 
management  is  to  be  graded  in  its  right  class. 

When  we  consider  that  each  type  of  record  bears 
a  relation  to  each  type  of  programme,  the  complexity 
of  the  problems  involved  become  apparent.  This  will 
be  better  shown  in  Table  11. 

TABLE  II 

1.  Unconscious     record,     uncon- 

scious programme. 

2.  Conscious  record,  unconscious 

programme. 

3.  Unconscious  record,  conscious 

programme. 

4.  Conscious    record,    conscious 

programme. 

5.  Unconscious    record,    written 

programme. 
I.     Man  working       6.  Written    record,    unconscious 
for  himself.  programme. 

7.  Conscious  record,  written  pro- 

gramme. 

8.  Written      record,      conscious 

programme. 

9.  Written   record,   written   pro- 

gramme. 
10.  Standardized     record,     stand- 
ardized programme. 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        aoi 

Illustration  of  This  Complexity. —  Table  II  repre- 
sents the  man  working  for  .himself,  with  subdi- 
visions under  it  showing  the  possible  relationship  be- 
tween his  record  and  his  programme.  We  find  that 
these  are  at  least  ten,  reaching  all  the  way  from  the 
unconscious  record  and  unconscious  programme  of  the 
migrating  transitory  laborer  to  the  standardized  rec- 
ord and  the  standardized  programme  of  the  manager 
who  manages  himself  scientifically. 

Each  one  of  these  represent  a  distinct  psychological 
stage.  The  progression  may  not  be  regular  and 
smooth  as  is  here  given, —  it  may  be  a  jump,  possibly 
even  from  one  to  nine.  It  may,  however,  be  a  slow 
progression  from  one  stage  to  another,  largely  to  be 
determined  by  the  type  of  mind  that  is  considered, 
and  the  opportunities  for  development  along  scien- 
tific lines  which  are  afforded.  It  is  the  writer's  in- 
tention to  discuss  these  at  length  at  some  other  time. 
Here  it  is  only  possible  to  enumerate,  in  order  to  show 
the  size  and  complexity  of  the  problem  which  is  here 
involved. 

The  table  does  not  indicate,  as  perhaps  it  should, 
the  fact  that  the  relationship  between  an  unconscious 
record  and  an  unconscious  programme  is  slight,  while 
the  relation  between  a  written  programme  and  a 
written  record  is  very  close  indeed.  In  Table  IV  this 
will  be  indicated. 

■     TABLE  III 
I.  One    of    a    gang,    unconscious 
record,       unconscious       pro- 
gramme,    on    part    of    both 
manager  and  man. 


2oa  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

II.     Man  work- 
ing for  another. 

2.  Individual  output, —  standard- 
ized record  and  programme, 
known  to,  or  made  by,  both 
manager  and  man. 

Elimination  of  Waste  Possible. —  The  third  table  — 
that  of  the  man  working  for  another  man — attempts 
to  do  no  more  than  indicate  the  first  and  last  step  of  a 
long  series,  beginning  with  the  man,  one  of  a  gang,  an 
unconscious  record,  and  an  unconscious  programme, 
on  the  part  of  both  the  manager  and  the  man,  down  to 
the  final  stage  of  individual  output,  with  the  written 
record  and  programme  known  to  both  manager  and 
man.  It  would  be  a  most  interesting  problem  to  work 
out  the  various  steps  stretching  between  these  two, 
and  the  various  ways  in  which  progression  might  be 
made  through  these  steps,  either  taking  one  step  after 
another  slowly  or  making  the  various  possible  jumps 
long  and  short.  A  psychological  discussion  of  each 
step  would  be  of  value,  and  certainly  must  in  time  be 
made,  but  this  book  has  not  the  scope,  nor  can  the 
time  be  devoted  to  such  a  discussion. 

If  this  third  chart  had  no  other  purpose,  it  would 
be  useful  to  suggest  to  the  student  the  wide  tracts 
which  still  remain  for  study  and  development.  It 
must  not  be  thought  that  any  of  the  steps  omitted  on 
this  chart  are  not  in  existence.  Every  single  pos- 
sible combination  of  record  and  programme  is  in  ex- 
istence to-day,  and  must  be  studied  by  the  manager  of 
men.     Not  until  these  are  all  discovered,  described, 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        203 

and  standardized,  the  progression  noted,  and  stand- 
ard progressions  outlined,  can  methods  of  least  waste 
be  adopted. 

With  a  more  thorough  experimental  study  of  the 
mind  will  come  a  possible  prediction  as  to  which 
stages  the  various  types  of  mind  must  pass  through. 
So,  too,  with  the  training  of  the  young  mind  in  the 
primary  schools  and  in  the  methods  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement, will  come  the  elimination  of  many  stages 
now  necessary,  and  the  possibility,  even,  that  the  final 
stage  may  be  introduced  at  the  outset,  and  the  enor- 
mous waste  of  time,  energy  and  wearing  of  unneces- 
sary brain  paths  be  absolutely  abolished. 

The  Programme  Derived  from  the  Record. —  Hav- 
ing considered  the  various  records  and  programmes 
and  their  relation,  we  will  now  consider  the  four  stages 
of  the  record, — (i)  unconscious,  (2)  conscious,  (3) 
written,  (4)  standardized,  and  trace  the  derivation 
of  the  programme  from  each  stage. 

TABLE  IV 

I.  Record  unconscious.     Programme  cannot  be  defi- 
nite. 
Method  is  indefinite. 

II.  Record  conscious.        Programme  becomes  more 

definite. 
Method      becomes      more 
definite. 

III.  Record  written.  Programme  yet  more  defi- 

nite. 
Method  definite. 


204  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

IV.  Record  standardized.  Programme    standardized, 

i.  e., 
Results  predictable. 
Methods  standard. 

Unconscious  Records  Mean  Indefinite  Pro- 
grammes.—  First,  then,  suppose  that  the  records  are 
unconscious.  What  does  this  imply?  It  implies  in  the 
first  place  that  the  worker  has  no  idea  of  his  capacity; 
never  having  thought  of  what  he  has  done,  he  has  no 
idea  what  can  be  done,  neither  has  he  a  comparative 
idea  of  methods,  that  is,  of  how  to  do  it.  It  is  impos- 
sible for  a  definite  programme  to  be  laid  out  by  such  a 
worker, —  that  is  to  say,  no  predictions  by  him  as  to 
the  time  of  completing  the  work  are  possible. 
Neither  could  a  method  be  derived  by  him  from  his 
previous  work. 

Note  here  the  alarming  amount  of  waste.  All  good 
methods  which  the  worker  may  possibly  have  acquired 
are  practically  lost  to  the  world,  and  perhaps  also 
to  him.  Not  only  this,  but  all  bad  methods  which  he 
has  fallen  into  will  be  fallen  into  again  and  again,  as 
there  are  no  warning  signs  to  keep  him  out  of 
them. 

As  there  is  no  possibility  of  an  accurate  chrono- 
logical chart,  the  worker  may  undertake  more  than 
he  can  do,  thus  delaying  work  which  should  have  been 
done  by  others.  On  the  other  hand,  he  may  under- 
estimate his  capacity,  and  be  left  idle  because  work 
he  should  have  done  has  been  assigned  to  others. 
Either  of  these  leads  to  a  sense  of  insecurity,  to  waver- 
ing attention,  to  "  hit  or  miss  "  guess  work,  "  rule-of- 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        205 

thumb  methods,"  which  are  the  signs  of  Traditional 
Management. 

With  Conscious  and  Written  Records  Come  Def- 
inite Programmes. —  We  turn  now  to  the  case  where 
the  record  is  conscious, —  that  is,  where  the  worker 
keeps  in  mind  exactly  what  he  has  done.  With  this 
conscious  record  the  idea  of  capacity  develops.  The 
man  realizes  what  he  can  do.  So  also,  the  idea  of 
method  develops,  and  the  man  realizes  how  he  can 
do  the  work.  Third,  there  comes  gradually  an  idea 
of  a  margin;  that  is,  of  a  possible  way  by  which  ca- 
pacity can  be  increased  for  a  higher  speed,  or  meth- 
ods can  be  slightly  varied  to  meet  any  particular 
deviation  in  the  work  to  be  done. 

From  this  ability  to  estimate  capacity,  and  to  plan 
the  method  ahead,  comes  the  ability  to  lay  out  a  more 
definite  programme.  When  the  record  becomes 
written  the  exactness  of  the  programme  increases. 
Methods  also  become  written,  and,  though  accurate 
prediction  is  not  possible,  such  prediction  is  more  and 
more  nearly  approached.  This  increasing  accuracy 
is  the  work  of  Transitory  System  in  all  its  stages. 

Standard  Records  Permit  of  Standard  Pro- 
grammes.—  In  the  last  case,  the  record  is  standard- 
ized, that  is,  the  result  of  the  method  of  processes  of 
analysis  and  synthesis.  Through  this  process,  as  has 
been  shown,  the  reason  for  success  is  discovered  and 
rendered  usable.  The  programme  becomes  stand- 
ard, results  can  be  predicted  accurately,  and  methods 
by  which  these  results  can  be  best  obtained  are  also 
standard. 

It  may  at  first  escape  notice  that  these  standardized 


ao6  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

records,  of  the  ultimate  or  scientific  management  type, 
imply  not  a  greater  rigidity,  but  a  greater  elasticity. 
This  because  of  the  nature  of  thi^  elements  of  the 
records,  which  may,  in  time,  be  combined  into  a  great 
number  of  different,  predictable  programmes. 

SUMMARY 

Results  of  Relations  Between  Records  and  Pro- 
grammes on  the  Work. —  The  most  noteworthy  result 
of  the  closer  relations  between  records  and  pro- 
grammes which  appear  during  the  evolution  of  Scien- 
tific Management  is  the  fact  that  they  cause  constant 
simplification.  The  more  carefully  records  are  stand- 
ardized, the  simpler  becomes  the  drafting  of  the  pro- 
gramme. As  more  and  more  records  become  stand- 
ard, the  drafting  of  programmes  becomes  constantly 
an  easier  and  cheaper  process. 

Programmes  Become  Records. —  Under  Traditional 
Management  the  record  that  follows  a  programme 
may  appear  very  different  from  the  programme. 
Under  Scientific  Management  the  record  that  follows 
a  programme  most  closely  resembles  the  programme. 
Improvements  are  not  made  between  the  programme 
and  the  following  record, —  they  find  their  place  be- 
tween the  record  and  the  following  programme. 
Thus  programmes  and  records  may  be  grouped  in 
pairs,  by  similarity,  with  a  likelihood  of  difference  be- 
tween any  one  pair  (one  programme  plus  one  record) 
and  other  pairs. 

Result  on  the  Worker. —  The  greatest  effect,  on  the 
worker,  of  these  relations  of  record  to  programme 
under  Scientific  Management  is  the  confidence  that  he 


RECORDS  AND  PROGRAMMES        207 

gains  in  the  judgment  that  is  an  outcome  of  Scientific 
Management.  When  the  worker  sees  that  Scientific 
Management  makes  possible  accurate  predictions  of 
times,  schedules,  tasks,  and  performance;  that  the 
methods  prescribed  invariably  enable  him  to  achieve 
prescribed  results,  his  confidence  iri  Scientific  Manage- 
ment groves.  So  also  does  the  manager's  confidence 
in  Scientific  Management  grow, —  and  in  this  mutual 
confidence  in  the  system  of  management  is  another 
bond  of  sympathy. 

The  place  left  for  suggestions  and  improvements,  in 
the  ever-present  opportunities  to  better  standards,  ful- 
fills that  longing  for  a  greater  efficiency  that  is  the 
cause  of  progress. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

TEACHING 

Definition  of  Teaching. —  The  Century  Dictionary 
defines  "  teaching "  as  "  the  act  or  business  of  in- 
structing," with  synonyms :  "  training  "  and  "  educa- 
tion;" and  "to  teach"  is  defined:  — 

1.  "to  point  out,  direct,  show;"  "to  tell,  inform, 

instruct,  explain ; " 

2.  "  to  show  how   (to   do   something) ;   hence,   to 

train ;  '* 

3.  "  to  impart  knowledge  or  practical  skill  to ;  "  "  to 

guide  in  learning,  educate." 

"  Educate,"  we  find  meaning  "  to  instruct,  to  teach 
methodically,  to  prescribe  to;  to  indoctrinate;"  and 
by  "  indoctrinate  "  is  meant  "  to  cause  to  hold  as  a 
doctrine  or  belief."  "  To  educate,"  says  the  same 
authority,  "  is  to  develop  mentally  or  morally  by  in- 
struction; to  qualify  by  instruction  and  training  for 
the  business  and  duty  of  life." 

Under  Traditional  Management  No  Definite  Plan 
of  Teaching. —  Under  Traditional  Management  there 
is  either  no  definite  scheme  of  teaching  by  the  man- 
agement itself,  or  practically  none;  at  least,  this  is 
usually  the  condition  under  the  most  elementary 
types  of  Traditional  Management.  In  the  very  high- 
est examples  of  the  traditional  plan  the  learner  may 

208 


TEACHING  209 

be  shown  how,  but  this  showing  is  not  usually  done 
in  a  systematic  way,  and  under  so-called  Traditional 
Management  is  seldom  in  the  form  of  written  in- 
structions. 

No  Specified  Time  for  or  Source  of  the  Teaching. — 
Under  Traditional  Management  there  is  no  particular 
time  in  which  this  teaching  goes  on,  no  particular 
time  allowed  for  the  worker  to  ask  for  the  instruc- 
tion, nor  is  there  any  particular  source  from  which 
he  obtains  the  instructions.  There  is,  moreover,  al- 
most every  hindrance  against  his  getting  any  more 
instruction  than  he  absolutely  must  have  in  order 
to  get  the  work  done.  The  persons  to  whom  he  can 
possibly  appeal  for  further  information  might  dis- 
charge him  for  not  already  knowing.  These  per- 
sons are,  if  he  is  an  apprentice,  an  older  worker; 
if  he  is  a  journeyman,  the  worker  next  to  him,  or  the 
foreman,  or  someone  over  him.  An  important  fact 
bearing  on  this  subject  is  that  it  is  not  to  the  pecun- 
iary advantage  of  any  particular  person  to  give  this 
teaching.  In  the  first  place,  if  the  man  be  a  fellow- 
worker,  he  will  want  to  do  his  own  work  without 
interruption,  he  will  not  want  to  take  the  time  off; 
moreover,  he  regards  his  particular  skill  as  more  or 
less  of  a  trade  secret,  and  desires  to  educate  no  more 
people  than  necessary,  to  be  as  clever  as  he  is.  In 
the  third  place,  there  is  no  possible  reward  for  giving 
this  instruction.  Of  course,  the  worker  necessarily 
improves  under  any  sort  of  teaching,  and  if  he  has 
a  receptive  mind,  or  an  inventive  mind,  he  must 
progress  constantly,  either  by  teaching  himself  or  by 
the  instruction,  no  matter  how  haphazard. 


2IO  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Great  Variation  Under  Traditional  Management. — 

Only  discussion  of  teaching  under  this  type  of  man- 
agement with  many  men  who  have  learned  under  it, 
can  sufficiently  emphasize  the  variations  to  be  found. 
But  the  consensus  of  opinion  would  seem  to  prove 
that  an  apprentice  of  only  a  generation  ago  was  too 
often  hazed,  was  discouraged  from  appealing  for 
assistance  or  advice  to  the  workers  near  him,  or  to 
his  foreman;  was  unable  to  find  valuable  literature 
for  home-study  on  the  subject  of  his  trade.  The  ex- 
perience of  many  an  apprentice  was,  doubtless,  dif- 
ferent from  this,  but  surely  the  mental  attitude  of 
the  journeymen  who  were  the  only  teachers  must 
have  tended  toward  some  such  resulting  attitude  of 
doubt  or  hesitancy  in  the  apprentice. 

Mental  Attitude  of  the  Worker-Teacher. —  Under 
the  old  plan  of  management,  the  apprentice  must 
appear  to  the  journeyman  more  or  less  of  a  sup- 
planter.  From  the  employee's  standpoint  it  was  most 
desirable  that  the  number  of  apprentices  be  kept 
down,  as  an  oversupply  of  labor  almost  invariably 
resulted  in  a  lowering  of  wages.  The  quicker  and 
better  the  apprentice  was  taught,  the  sooner  he  be- 
came an  active  competitor.  There  seldom  existed 
under  this  type  of  management  many  staff  positions 
to  which  the  workers  could  hope  to  be  promoted, 
certainly  none  where  they  could  utilize  to  the  fullest 
extent  their  teaching  ability.  There  was  thus  every 
reason  for  a  journeyman  to  regard  the  teaching  of 
apprentices  as  unremunerative,  irksome,  and  annoy- 
ing. 

Worker  Not  to  Blame  for  This. —  The  worker  is 


TEACHING  211 

not  to  be  blamed  for  this  attitude.  The  conditions 
under  which  he  worked  made  it  almost  inevitable. 
Not  only  could  he  gain  little  or  nothing  by  being  a 
successful  teacher,  but  also  the  bullying  instinct  was 
appealed  to  constantly,  and  the  desire  of  the  upper 
classmen  in  hazing  days  to  make  the  next  class  "  pay 
up  "  for  the  hazing  that  they  were  obliged  to  endure 
in  their  Freshman  year. 

Attitude  of  the  Learner. —  The  attitude  of  the 
typical  learner  must  frequently  be  one  of  hesitancy 
and  self-distrust  if  not  of  fear,  though  conditions  were 
so  varied  as  almost  to  defy  classification.  One  type 
of  apprentice  was  expected  to  learn  merely  by  ob- 
servation and  imitation.  Another  was  practically  the 
chore  boy  of  the  worker  who  was  assigned  to  teach 
him.  A  third  was  under  no  direct  supervision  at  all, 
but  was  expected  to  "  keep  busy,"  finding  his  work 
by  himself.  A  fourth  was  put  through  a  severe  and 
valuable  training  by  a  martinet  teacher, —  and  so  on. 

Teaching  Often  Painstaking. —  It  is  greatly  to  the 
credit  of  the  worker  under  this  type  of  management 
that  he  was,  in  spite  of  all  drawbacks,  occasionally  a 
painstaking  teacher,  to  the  best  of  his  lights.  He 
insisted  on  application,  and  especially  on  quality  of 
work.  He  unselfishly  gave  of  his  own  time  and  skill 
to  help  the  apprentice  under  him. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Usually  Wrong. —  Unfor- 
tunately, through  no  fault  of  the  worker-teacher  the 
teaching  was  usually  done  according  to  wrong  meth- 
ods. Quality  of  resulting  output  was  so  emphasized 
that  neither  speed  nor  correct  motions  were  given 
proper  consideration. 


212  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Teacher  Not  Trained  to  Teach. —  The  reason  for 
this  was  that  the  worker  had  no  training  to  be  a 
teacher.  In  the  first  place,  he  had  no  adequate  idea 
of  his  own  capabilities,  and  of  which  parts  of  his  own 
method  were  fit  to  be  taught.  In  the  second  place, 
he  did  not  know  that  right  motions  must  be  insisted 
on  first,  speed  next,  and  quality  of  output  third;  or 
in  other  words  that  if  the  motions  were  precise 
enough,  the  quality  would  be  first.  In  the  fourth 
place  he  had  no  pedagogical  training. 

Lack  of  Standards  an  Underlying  Lack. —  All 
shortcoming  in  the  old  time  teaching  may  be  traced 
to  lack  of  standards.  The  worker  had  never  been 
measured,  hence  had  no  idea  of  his  efficiency,  or  of 
possible  efficiency.  No  standard  methods  made  plain 
the  manner  in  which  the  work  should  be  done. 
Moreover,  no  standard  division  and  assignment  of 
work  allowed  of  placing  apprentices  at  such  parts 
of  the  work  that  quality  could  be  given  third  place. 
No  standard  requirements  had  determined  his  fit- 
ness as  a  teacher,  nor  the  specialty  that  he  should 
teach,  and  no  incentive  held  his  interest  to  the  teach- 
ing. These  standards  the  worker-teacher  could  not 
provide  for  himself,  and  the  wonder  is  that  the  teach- 
ing was  of  such  a  high  character  as  it  was. 

Very  Little  Teaching  of  Adults. —  Under  Tradi- 
tional Management,  teaching  of  adults  was  slight, — 
there  being  little  incentive  either  to  teacher  or  to 
learner,  and  it  being  always  difficult  for  an  adult  to 
change  his  method.^  Moreover,  it  would  be  difficult 
for  a  worker  using  one  method  to  persuade  one  using 
1 F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Bricklaying  System,  para.  541-545. 


TEACHING  213 

another  that  his  was  the  better,  there  being  no  stand- 
ard. Even  if  the  user  of  the  better  did  persuade  the 
other  to  follow  his  method,  the  final  result  might  be 
the  loss  of  some  valuable  elements  of  the  poorer 
method  that  did  not  appear  in  the  better. 

Failure  to  Appreciate  the  Importance  of  Teach- 
ing.—  An  underestimation  of  the  importance  of 
teaching  lay  at  the  root  of  the  lack  of  progress. 
This  is  so  directly  connected  with  all  the  other  lacks 
of  Traditional  Management, —  provision  for  adequate 
promotion  and  pay,  standards,  and  the  other  under- 
lying principles  of  Scientific  Management,  especially 
the  appreciation  of  cooperation, —  that  it  is  almost 
impossible  to  disentangle  the  reasons  for  it.  Nor 
would  it  be  profitable  to  attempt  to  do  so  here.  In 
considering  teaching  under  Scientific  Management 
we  shall  show  the  influence  of  the  appreciation  of 
teaching, —  and  may  deduce  the  lacks  from  its  non- 
appreciation,  from  that  discussion. 

Under  Transitory  System  Teaching  Becomes  More 
Important. —  Under  Transitory  Management  the  im- 
portance of  teaching  becomes  at  once  more  apparent. 
This,  both  by  providing  for  the  teaching  of  foremen 
and  journeymen  as  well  as  apprentices,  and  by  the 
providing  of  written  systems  of  instructions  as  to  best 
practice.  The  worker  has  access  to  all  the  sources 
of  information  of  Traditional  Management,  and  has, 
besides  these,  in  effect,  unsystematically  derived 
standards  to  direct  him. 

Systems  Make  Instruction  Always  Available. — 
The  use  of  written  systems  enables  every  worker  to 
receive  instruction  at  any  time,  to  feel  free  to  ask 


214  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

it,  and  to  follow  it  without  feeling  in  any  way  hu- 
miliated. 

The  result  of  the  teaching  of  these  systems  is  a 
decided  improvement  in  methods.  If  the  written 
systems  are  used  exclusively  as  a  source  of  teaching, 
except  for  the  indefinite  teachers  of  the  Traditional 
Management,  the  improvement  becomes  definitely 
proportioned  to  the  time  which  the  man  spends  upon 
the  studying  and  to  the  amount  of  receptive  power 
which  he  naturally  has. 

Incentives  to  Conform  to  System. —  The  worker 
has  incentives  to  follow  the  systems  — 

1.  In  that  he  is  required  to  render  reasons  in  writ- 
ing for  permanent  filing,  for  every  disobedience  of 
system. 

2.  That,  as  soon  as  work  is  placed  on  the  bonus 
basis,  the  first  bonus  that  is  given  is  for  doing  work 
in  accordance  with  the  prescribed  method. 

Even  before  the  bonus  is  paid,  the  worker  will  not 
vary  for  any  slight  reasons,  if  he  positively  knows  at 
the  time  that  he  must  account  for  so  doing,  and  that 
he  will  be  considered  to  have  "  stacked  his  judg- 
ment "  against  that  of  the  manager.  Being  called 
to  account  for  deviations  gives  the  man  a  feeling  of 
responsibility  for  his  act,  and  also  makes  him  feel 
his  close  relationship  with  the  managers. 

No  Set  Time  for  Using  Systems. —  There  is,  un- 
der this  type  of  management,  no  set  time  for  the 
study  of  the  systems. 

Systems  Inelastic. —  Being  written,  these  systems 
have  all  the  disadvantages  of  anything  that  is  written. 
That    is    to    say,    they    require    considerable    adapt- 


TEACHING  215 

ability  on  the  part  of  the  man  who  is  using  them. 
He  must  consider  his  own  mind,  and  the  amount  of 
time  which  he  must  put  on  studying;  he  must  con- 
sider his  own  work,  and  adapting  that  method  to  his 
work  while  still  obeying  instructions.  In  the  case 
of  the  system  being  in  great  detail,  he  can  usually 
find  a  fairly  detailed  description  of  what  he  is  going 
to  do,  and  can  use  that.  In  the  case  of  the  system 
being  not  so  complete,  if  his  work  varies,  he  must 
show  intelligence  in  varying  the  system,  and  this 
intelligence  often  demands  a  knowledge  which  he  has 
not,  and  knows  not  where  to  obtain. 

Waste  of  Time  from  Unstandardized  Systems. — 
The  time  necessitated  by  the  worker's  la3dng  out 
details  of  his  method  is  taken  from  the  total  time  of 
his  working  day,  hence  in  so  far  cuts  down  his  total 
product.  Moreover,  if  no  record  is  kept  of  the  de- 
tails of  his  planning  the  next  worker  on  the  same 
kind  of  work  must  repeat  the  investigation. 

Later  Transitional  Management  Emphasizes  Use 
of  Standards. —  Later  Transitional  Management  elim- 
inates this  waste  of  time  by  standardizing  meth- 
ods composed  of  standardized  timed  units,  thus  both 
rendering  standards  elastic,  and  furnishing  details. 

Teaching  Most  Important  Under  Scientific  Man- 
agement.—  Teaching  is  a  most  important  element 
under  Scientific  Management  not  only  because  it  in- 
creases industrial  efficiency,  but  also  because  it  fos- 
ters industrial  peace. ^ 

Importance  Depends  on  Other  Elements  of  Scien- 

2  H.  K.  Hathaway,  Prerequisites  to  the  Introduction  of  Scientiiic 
Management,  Engineering  Magazine,  April,  191 1,  p.  141. 


21©  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

tific  Management. —  As  we  have  seen,  Scientific  Man- 
agement has  as  a  basic  idea  the  necessity  of  divided 
responsibility,  or  functionaHzation.  This,  when  ac- 
companied by  the  interdependent  bonus,  creates  an 
incentive  to  teach  and  an  incentive  to  learn.  Scien- 
tific Management  divides  the  planning  from  the  per- 
forming in  order  to  centralize  and  standardize  knowl- 
edge in  the  planning  department,  thus  making  all 
knowledge  of  each  available  to  all.  This  puts  at  the 
disposal  of  all  more  than  any  could  have  alone.  The 
importance  of  having  this  collected  and  standardized 
knowledge  conveyed  best  to  the  worker  cannot  be 
overestimated.  Through  this  knowledge,  the  worker 
is  able  to  increase  his  output,  and  thus  insure  the 
lowered  costs,  that  provide  the  funds  with  which  to 
pay  his  higher  wages, —  to  increase  his  potential  as 
well  as  actual  efficiency,  and  best  to  cooperate  with 
other  workers  and  with  the  management. 

Importance  of  Teaching  Element  Best  Claim  to 
Permanence  of  Scientific  Management. —  Upon  the 
emphasis  which  it  places  on  teaching  rests  a  large 
part  of  the  claim  of  Scientific  Management  for  per- 
manence.^ We  have  already  shown  the  derivation 
of  the  standards  which  are  taught.  We  have  shown 
that  the  relation  between  the  planning  and  perform- 
ing departments  is  based  largely  on  means  and  meth- 
ods for  teaching.  We  have  only  to  show  here  that 
the  teaching  is  done  in  accordance  with  those  laws 
of  Psychology  that  are  the  laws  of  Pedagogy. 

Teaching  in  Scientific  Management  Not  the  Result 
of  Theory  Only. —  The  methods  of  teaching  under 

3  H.  L.  Gantt,  paper  928,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  p.  372. 


TEACHING  ai7 

Scientific  Management  were  not  devised  in  response 
to  theories  of  education.  They  are  the  result  of 
actual  experience  in  getting  work  done  most  success- 
fully. The  teachers,  the  methods,  the  devices  for 
teaching, —  all  these  grew  up  to  meet  needs,  as  did 
the  other  elements  of  Scientific  Management. 

Conformity  of  Teaching  to  Psychological  Laws 
Proof  of  Worth  of  Scientific  Management. —  The  fact 
that  teaching  under  Scientific  Management  does  con- 
form, as  will  be  shown,  to  the  laws  of  Psychology,  is 
an  added  proof  of  the  value  of  Scientific  Management. 

Change  from  Teaching  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment.— -  Mr.  Gantt  says,  "  The  general  policy  of  the 
past  has  been  to  drive ;  but  the  era  of  force  must  give 
way  to  that  of  knowledge,  and  the  policy  of  the  fu- 
ture will  be  to  teach  and  to  lead,  to  the  advantage 
of  all  concerned."  *  This  "  driving"  element  of  Tra- 
ditional Management  is  eliminated  by  Scientific  Man- 
agement. 

Necessity  for  Personally  Derived  Judgment  Elim- 
inated.—  So  also  is  eliminated  the  old  behef  that  the 
worker  must  go  through  all  possible  experiences  in 
order  to  acquire  "  judgment "  as  to  best  methods. 
If  the  worker  must  pass  through  all  the  stages  of  the 
training  of  the  old-fashioned  mechanic,  and  this  is  seri- 
ously advocated  by  some,  he  may  fail  to  reach  the 
higher  planes  of  knowledge  afforded  by  training  un- 
der Scientific  Management,  by  reason  of  sheer  lack 
of  time.  If,  therefore,  by  artificial  conditions  caused 
by  united  agreement  and  collective  bargaining,  work- 
men insist  upon  forcing  upon  the  new  learners  the 

4  H.  L.  Gantt,  Work,  Wages  and  Profits,  p.  Ii6. 


2i8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

old-school  training,  they  will  lose  just  so  much  of  the 
benefits  of  training  under  those  carefully  arranged 
and  carefully  safe-guarded  processes  of  industrial  in- 
vestigation in  which  modern  science  has  been  suc- 
cessful. To  refuse  to  start  in  where  others  have  left 
off,  is  really  as  wasteful  as  it  would  be  to  refuse  to 
use  mathematical  formulas  because  they  have  been 
worked  out  by  others.  It  might  be  advocated  that 
the  mind  would  grow  by  working  out  every  possible 
mathematical  formula  before  using  it,  but  the  result 
would  be  that  the  student  would  be  held  back  from 
any  further  original  investigation.  Duplicating  pri- 
mary investigations  might  be  original  work  for  him, 
but  it  would  be  worthless  as  far  as  the  world  is  con- 
cerned. The  same  is  absolutely  true  in  management. 
If  the  worker  is  held  back  by  acquiring  every  bit  of 
knowledge  for  himself  instead  of  taking  the  work  of 
others  as  the  starting  point,  the  most  valuable  initia- 
tive will  be  lost  to  the  world. 

Bad  Habits  the  Result  of  Undirected  Learning. — 
Even  worse  than  the  waste  of  time  would  be  the 
danger  of  acquiring  habits  of  bad  methods,  habits  of 
unnecessary  motions,  habits  of  inaccurate  work; 
habits  of  inattention.  Any  or  all  of  these  might  de- 
velop. These  are  all  prevented  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement by  the  improved  methods  of  teaching. 

Valuable  Elements  of  Traditional  Management 
Conserved. —  There  are,  however,  many  valuable  ele- 
ments of  the  old  Traditional  system  of  teaching  and 
of  management  which  should  be  retained  and  not  be 
lost  in  the  new. 

For  example^ —  the  greatest  single  cause  of  mak- 


TEACHING  2ig 

ing  men  capable  under  the  old  plan  was  the  foreman's 
unconscious  ability  to  make  his  men  believe,  before 
they  started  a  task,  that  they  could  achieve  it. 

It  must  not  be  thought  that  because  of  the  aids 
to  the  teacher  under  Scientific  Management  the  old 
thought  of  personality  is  lost.  The  old  ability  to 
convert  a  man  to  the  belief  that  he  could  do  a  thing, 
to  inspire  him  with  confidence  in  his  foreman,  with 
confidence  in  himself,  and  a  desire  to  do  things,  is  by 
no  means  lost,  on  the  contrary  it  is  carefully  preserved 
under  Scientific  Management. 

Teaching  of  Transitory  Management  Supple- 
mented.—  In  the  transforming  of  Transitory  into 
Scientific  Management,  we  note  that  the  process  is 
one  of  supplementing,  not  of  discarding.  Written 
system,  which  is  the  distinguishing  characteristic  of 
Transitory  Management,  is  somewhat  limited  in  its 
scope,  but  its  usefulness  is  by  no  means  impaired. 

Scope  of  Teaching  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.—  Under  Scientific  Management  teaching  must 
cover 

1.  Teaching  of  right  methods  of  doing  work, 

2.  Teaching  of  right  habits  of  doing  the  right 
methods. 

The  teacher  must  so  impart  the  knowledge  that 
judgment  can  be  acquired  without  the  learner  being 
obliged  himself  to  experience  all  the  elements  of  the 
judgment. 

Needs  for  Teaching  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.—  The  needs  for  this  teaching  have  been  stated, 
but  may  be  recapitulated  here. 

I.  Worker  may  not  observe  his  own  mistakes. 


If  the  wofker  chooses 
to  use  them. 


220  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

2.  Worker  has  no  opportunity  under  the  old  indus- 
trial conditions  to  standardize  his  own  methods. 

3.  Worker  must  know  standard  practice. 

4.  Waste  can  be  eliminated  by  the  teaching.    . 

5.  Right  habits  can  be  instilled. 

Sources  of  Teaching  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.—  The  sources  of  teaching  under  Scientific 
Management  are 

1.  Friends  or  Relatives 

2.  Fellow  workers 

3.  Literature  of  the  Trade 

4.  Night  schools  and  study 

5.  The  Management. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.—  The  Methods  of  Teaching  under  Scientific 
Management  are 

1.  Written,  by  means  of 

(a)  Instruction  Cards  telling  what  is  to  be  done 
and  how, 

(b)  Systems,  explaining  the  why. 

(c)  Drawings,  charts,  plans,  photographs,  illus- 
trating methods. 

(d)  Records  made  by  the  worker  himself. 

2.  Oral,  the  teaching  of  the  Functional  Foremen. 

3.  Object-lessons: 

(a)  Exhibits. 

(b)  Working  models. 

(c)  Demonstrations  by  the  Teacher. 

(d)  Demonstrations  by  the  worker  under  Super- 
vision. 

Worker  a  Source  of  These  Methods. —  It  should  be 
often  stated  that,  ultimately,  the  elements  of  all  meth- 


TEACHING  221 

ods  are  derived  from  a  study  of  workers,  and  that  the 
worker  should  be  enabled  to  realize  this.  Only  when 
he  feels  that  he  is  a  part  of  what  is  taught,  and  that 
the  teachers  are  a  means  of  presenting  to  him  the 
underlying  principles  of  his  own  experience,  will  the 
worker  be  able  to  cooperate  with  all  his  energy. 

Instruction  Cards  Are  Directions. —  Instruction 
Cards  are  direct  instructions  for  each  piece  of  work, 
giving,  in  most  concise  form,  closely  defined  descrip- 
tion of  standard  practice  and  directions  as  to  how 
each  element  of  the  standardized  task  is  to  be  per- 
formed. The  makers  know  that  they  must  make 
their  directions  clear  ultimately,  therefore  they  strive 
constantly  for  clearness. 

Instruction  Cards  Teach  Directly  and  Indirectly. — 
These  Instruction  Cards  not  only  teach  the  worker 
directly  best  to  do  his  work,  but  also  teach  him  in- 
directly how  to  become  a  leader,  demonstrator, 
teacher  and  functional  foreman.  Study  of  them  may 
lead  to  an  interest  in,  and  a  study  of,  elements,  and 
to  preparation  for  becoming  one  of  the  planning  de- 
partment. The  excellent  method  of  attack  of  the 
Instruction  Card  cannot  fail  to  have  some  good  ef- 
fect, even  upon  such  workers  as  do  not  consciously 
note  it.^ 

Systems  Are  Reasons  and  Explanations. — "  Sys- 
tems "  or  standing  orders  are  collections  of  detailed 
reasons  for,  and  explanations  of,  the  decisions  em- 
bodied in  the  directions  of  the  Instruction  Cards. 
There  is  a  system  showing  the  standard  practice  of 
each  kind  of  work. 

6  H.  L.  Gantt,  paper  928,  A.  S.  M.  E„  p.  342. 


222  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

They  Enlist  the  Judgment  of  the  Worker. —  Un- 
der really  successful  management,  it  is  realized  that 
the  worker  is  of  an  inquiring  mind,  and  that,  unless 
this  inquiring  tendency  of  his  is  recognized,  and  his 
curiosity  is  satisfied,  he  can  never  do  his  best  work. 
Unless  the  man  knows  why  he  is  doing  the  thing,  his 
judgment  will  never  reenforce  his  work.  He  may 
conform  to  the  method  absolutely,  but  his  work  will 
not  enlist  his  zeal  unless  he  knows  just  exactly  why 
he  is  made  to  work  in  the  particular  manner  pre- 
scribed. This  giving  of  the  "  why  "  to  the  worker 
through  the  system,  and  thus  allowing  his  reason  to 
follow  through  all  the  details,  and  his  judgment  to 
conform  absolutely,  should  silence  the  objections  of 
those  who  claim  that  the  worker  becomes  a  machine, 
and  that  he  has  no  incentive  to  think  at  his  work. 
On  the  contrary,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  method 
furnishes  him  with  more  viewpoints  from  which  he 
can  consider  his  work. 

Drawings,  Charts,  Plans  and  Photographs  Means 
of  Making  Directions  Clearer. —  The  Instruction 
Cards  are  supplemented  with  drawings,  charts,  plans 
and  stereoscopic  and  timed  motion  photographs, — 
any  or  all, —  in  order  to  make  the  directions  of  the 
Instruction  Cards  plainer. 

Stereoscopic  and  Micro-Motion  Study  Photographs 
Particularly  Useful. — '  Stereoscopic  photographs  are 
especially  useful  in  helping  non-visualizers,  and  in 
presenting  absolutely  new  work.  The  value  as  an 
educator  of  stereoscopic  and  synthesized  micro- 
motion photographs  of  right  methods  is  as  yet  but 
faintly  appreciated. 


TEACHING  223 

The  "  timed  motion  picture,"  or  "  micro-motion 
study  photograph "  as  it  is  called,  consists  of 
rapidly  photographing  workers  in  action  accompanied 
by  a  specially  constructed  chronometer  that  shows 
such  minute  divisions  of  time  that  motion  pictures 
taken  at  a  speed  that  will  catch  the  most  rapid  of 
human  motions  without  a  blur,  will  show  a  different 
time  of  day  in  each  photograph.  The  difference  in 
the  time  in  any  two  pictures  gives  the  elapsed  time  of 
the  desired  motion  operation  or  time  unit. 

Self-Made  Records  Educative. —  The  educative 
value  of  the  worker's  making  his  own  records  has 
never  been  sufficiently  appreciated.  Dr.  Taylor  in- 
sists upon  this  procedure  wherever  possible.^  Not 
only  does  the  worker  learn  from  the  actual  marking 
in  of  the  spaces  reserved  for  him,  but  also  he  learns 
to  feel  himself  a  part  of  the  record  making  division 
of  the  management.  This  proof  of  the  "  square  deal," 
in  recording  his  output,  and  of  the  confidence  in  him, 
cannot  fail  to  enlist  his  cooperation. 

Oral  Instruction  Comes  from  the  Functional  Fore- 
men.—  The  Functional  Foremen  are  teachers  whose 
business  it  is  to  explain,  translate  and  supplement 
the  various  written  instructions  when  the  worker 
either  does  not  understand  them,  does  not  know  how 
to  follow  them,  or  makes  a  mistake  in  following  them. 

Oral  Instruction  Has  Its  Fitting  Place  Under 
Scientific  Management. —  Oral  instruction  under 
Scientific  Management  has  at  least  four  advantages 
over  such  instruction  under  Traditional  Management. 

8  F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  289,  Harper  Ed.,  pp. 
127-128. 


824  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

1.  The  Instructor  is  capable  of  giving  instruction. 

2.  The  Instructor's,  specialty  is  giving  instruction. 

3.  The  instruction  is  a  supplement  to  written  in- 
structions. 

4.  The  instruction  comes  at  the  exact  time  that  the 
learner  needs  it. 

Teacher,  or  Functional  Foreman,  Should  Under- 
stand Psychology  and  Pedagogy. —  The  successful 
teacher  must  understand  the  minds  of  his  men,  and 
must  be  able  to  present  his  information  in  such  a  way 
that  it  will  be  grasped  readily.  Such  knowledge  of 
psychology  and  pedagogy  as  he  possesses  he  may 
acquire  almost  unconsciously 

1.  from  the  teaching  of  others, 

2.  from  his  study  of  Instruction  Cards  and  Sys- 
tems, 

3.  from  actual  practice  in  teaching. 

The  advantages  of  a  study  of  psychology  itself,  as 
it  applies  to  the  field  of  teaching  in  general,  and  of 
teaching  in  the  industries  in  particular,  are  apparent. 
Such  study  must,  in  the  future,  become  more  and 
more  prevalent. 

Advantage  o£  Functional  Foreman-Teacher  Over 
Teacher  in  the  Schools. —  The  Functional  Foreman- 
teacher  has  an  advantage  over  the  teacher  in  the 
school  in  that  the  gap  between  him  and  those  he 
teaches  is  not  so  great.  He  knows,  because  he  re- 
members, exactly  how  the  worker  must  have  his  in- 
formation presented  to  him.  This  gap  is  narrowed 
by  functionalizing  the  oral  teaching,  by  using  it 
merely  as  a  supplement  to  the  written  teaching,  and 
by  supplementing  it  with  object-lessons. 


TEACHING  225 

Teacher  Must  Have  Practical  Knowledge  of  the 
Trade  He  Is  to  Teach. —  The  teacher  must  have  an 
intimate  practical  knowledge  of  the  art  or  trade  that 
he  is  to  teach.  The  most  profound  knowledge  of 
Psychology  will  never  be  a  substitute  for  the  mastery 
of  the  trade,  as  a  condition  precedent  to  turning  out 
the  best  craftsmen.  This  is  provided  for  by  secur- 
ing teachers  from  the  ranks  of  the  workers.'^ 

He  Must  Have  a  Thorough  Knowledge  of  the 
Standards. —  He  must  have  more  than  the  traditional 
knowledge  of  the  trade  that  he  is  to  teach;  he  must 
have  also  the  knowledge  that  comes  only  from  scien- 
tific investigation  of  his  trade.  This  knowledge  is 
ready  and  at  hand,  in  the  standards  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement that  are  available  to  all  for  study. 

He  Must  Be  Convinced  of  the  Value  of  the  Meth- 
ods He  Teaches. —  The  teacher  must  also  have  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  records  of  output  of 
the  method  he  is  to  teach  as  compared  with  those  of 
methods  held  in  high  esteem  by  the  believer  in  the 
old  methods;  for  it  is  a  law  that  no  teacher  can  be 
efficient  in  teaching  any  method  in  which  he  does  not 
believe,  any  more  than  a  salesman  can  do  his  best 
work  when  he  does  not  implicitly  believe  in  the  goods 
that  he  is  selling. 

He  Must  Be  an  Enthusiast. —  The  best  teacher  is 
the  one  who  is  an  enthusiast  on  the  subject  of  the 
work  itself,  who  can  cause  contagion  or  imitation  of 
his  state  of  mind,  by  love  of  the  problems  themselves. 

Such  Enthusiasm  Contagious. —  It  is  the  contagion 
of  this  enthusiasm  that  will  always  create  a  demand 

^H.  K.  Hathaway,  Engineering  Magazine,  April,  191 1,  p.  144. 


226  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

for  teachers,  no  matter  how  perfect  instruction  cards 
may  become.  There  is  no  form  or  device  of  man- 
agement that  does  away  with  good  men,  and  in  the 
teacher,  as  here  described,  is  conserved  the  per- 
sonal element  of  the  successful,  popular  Traditional 
foreman. 

Valuable  Teacher  Interests  Men  in  the  Economic 
Value  of  Scientific  Management. —  The  most  valuable 
teacher  is  one  who  can  arouse  his  pupils  to  such  a 
state  of  interest  in  the  economic  values  of  the  meth- 
ods of  Scientific  Management,  that  all  other  objects 
that  would  ordinarily  distract  or  hold  their  attention 
will  be  banished  from  their  minds.  They  will  then 
remember  each  step  as  it  is  introduced,  and  they  will 
be  consumed  with  interest  and  curiosity  to  know  what 
further  steps  can  be  introduced,  that  will  still  fur- 
ther eliminate  waste. 

Object-lesson  May  Be  "Working  Models." — The 
object-lesson  may  be  a  "  fixed  exhibit "  or  a  "  work- 
ing model,"  "  a  process  in  different  stages,"  or 
"  a  micro-motion  study  film "  of  the  work  that 
is  to  be  done.  Successful  and  economical  teach- 
ing may  be  done  with  such  models,  which  are 
especially  valuable  where  the  workers  do  not  speak 
the  same  language  as  the  teacher,  where  many 
workers  are  to  perform  exactly  similar  work,  or 
where  the  memory,  the  visualizing  and  the  construc- 
tive imagination,  are  so  poor  that  the  models  must 
be  referred  to  constantly.  Models  naturally  appeal 
best  to  those  who  take  in  information  easiest  through 
the  eyes. 

Object-lessons   May   Be    Demonstrations   by   the 


TEACHING  287 

Teacher. —  The  teacher  may  demonstrate  the  method 
manually  to  the  worker,  or  by  means  of  films  show- 
ing synthesized  right  methods  on  the  motion-picture 
screen.  This>  also,  is  a  successful  method  of  teach- 
ing those  who  speak  a  different  language,  or  of  ex- 
plaining new  work, —  though  it  calls  for  a  better 
memory  than  does  the  "  working  model."  The 
model,  however,  shows  desired  results;  the  demon- 
stration, desired  methods. 

Demonstration  Method  Chief  Method  of  Teaching 
by  Foremen. —  The  manual  demonstration  method  is 
the  chief  method  of  teaching  the  workmen  by  the 
foremen  under  Scientific  Management,  and  no  method 
is  rated  as  standard  that  cannot  be  successfully 
demonstrated  by  the  teacher,  at  any  time,  on  re- 
quest. 

Worker  may  Demonstrate  Under  Supervision. — 
If  the  worker  is  of  that  type  that  can  learn  only  by 
actually  doing  the  work  himself,  he  is  allowed  to 
demonstrate  the  method  under  supervision  of  the 
teacher.® 

Teaching  Always  Available  Under  Scientific  Man- 
agement.—  Under  Scientific  Management  all  of  these 
forms  of  teaching  are  available  constantly.  The  in- 
struction card  and  accompanying  illustrations  are 
given  to  the  worker  before  he  starts  to  work,  and 
are  so  placed  that  he  can  consult  them  easily  at  any 
time  during  the  work.  As,  also,  if  object-lessons 
are  used,  they  are  given  before  work  commences,  and 
repeated  when  necessary. 

8  W.  D.  Ennis,  An  Experiment  in  Motion  Study,  Industrial  En- 
gineering, June,  191 1,  p.  462. 


328  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

The  teacher  is  constantly  available  for  oral  in- 
struction, and  the  systems  are  constantly  available 
for  consultation. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment Psychologically  Right. —  In  order  to  prove  that 
teaching  under  Scientific  Management  is  most  valu- 
able, it  is  necessary  to  show  that  it  is  psychologically 
right,  that  it  leads  to  mental  development  and  im- 
provement. Under  Scientific  Management,  teach- 
ing,— 

1.  uses  and  trains  the  senses. 

2.  induces  good  habits  of  thinking  and  acting. 

3.  stimulates  attention. 

4.  provides  for  valuable  associations. 

5.  assists  and  strengthens  the  memory. 

6.  develops  the  imagination. 

7.  develops  judgment. 

8.  utilizes  suggestion. 

9.  utilizes  "  native  reactions." 
10.  develops  the  will. 

Teaching  Under  Scientific  Management  Trains  the 
Senses. —  Scientific  Management,  in  teaching  the 
man,  aims  to  train  all  of  his  senses  possible.  Not 
only  does  each  man  show  an  aptitude  for  some  spe- 
cial sense  training,^  but  at  certain  times  one  sense 
may  be  stronger  than  another;  for  example,  the 
sense  of  hearing,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  saying, 
"  The  patient  in  the  hospital  knoweth  when  his  doc- 
tor Cometh  by  the  fall  of  his  footsteps,  yet  when  he 
recovereth  he  knoweth  not  even  his  face."     At  the 

8  C  S.  Myers,  M.D.,  An  Introduction  to  Experimental  Psychol- 
ogy, chap.  V,  p.  73. 


TEACHING  aag 

time  that  a  certain  thing  becomes  of  interest,  and  be- 
comes particularly  interesting  to  one  sense,  that 
sense  is  particularly  keen  and  developed. 

Scientific  Management  cannot  expect,  without 
more  detailed  psychological  data  than  is  as  yet  avail- 
able, to  utilize  these  periods  of  sense  predominance 
adequately.  It  can,  and  does,  aim  to  utilize  such 
senses  as  are  trained,  and  to  supply  defects  of  train- 
ing of  the  other  senses. 

Such  Training  Partially  Determines  the  Quality  of 
the  Work. —  The  importance  of  sense  training  can 
scarcely  be  overestimated.  Through  his  senses,  the 
worker  takes  in  the  directions  as  to  what  he  is  to  do, 
and  on  the  accuracy  with  which  his  senses  record  the 
impressions  made  upon  them,  depends  the  mental 
model  which  he  ultimately  follows,  and  the  accuracy 
of  his  criticism  of  the  resulting  physical  object  of  his 
work.  Through  the  senses,  the  worker  sets  his  own 
task,  and  inspects  his  work. 

Sense  Training  Influences  Increase  of  Efficiency. — 
With  the  training  of  the  senses  the  possibility  of  in- 
creased efficiency  increases.  As  any  sense  becomes 
trained,  the  minimum  visable  is  reduced,  and  more 
accurate  impressions  become  possible.^*^  They  lead 
to  more  rapid  work,  by  eliminating  time  necessary  for 
judgment.  The  bricklayer  develops  a  fineness  of 
touch  that  allows  him  to  dispense  with  sight  in  some 
parts  of  his  work. 

Selective  Power  of  Senses  Developed. —  James  de- 
fines the   sense  organs  as   "  organs  of   selection."  ^^ 

10  G.  M.  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  p.  125. 

11  William  James,  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  p.  171. 


230  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Scientific  Management  so  trains  them  that  they  can 
select  what  is  of  most  value  to  the  worker. 

Methods  of  Sense  Training  Under  Scientific  Man- 
agement.—  The  senses  are  trained  under  Scientific 
Management  by  means  of  the  various  sources  of 
teaching.  The  instruction  card,  with  its  detailed  de- 
scriptions of  operations,  and  its  accompanying  illus- 
trations, not  only  tends  to  increase  powers  of  visuali- 
zation, but  also,  by  the  close  observation  it  demands, 
it  reduces  the  minimum  visible.  The  "  visible  in- 
struction card,"  or  working  model,  is  an  example  of 
supplementing  weak  power  of  visualization.  The 
most  available  simple,  inexpensive  and  easily  handled 
device  to  assist  visualizing  is  the  stereo  or  three-di- 
mension photograph,  which  not  only  serves  its  pur- 
pose at  the  time  of  its  use,  but  trains  the  eye  to  see 
the  third  dimension  always. 

Much  training  is  given  to  the  eye  in  Scientific  Man- 
agement by  the  constant  insistence  on  inspection. 
This  inspection  is  not  confined  to  the  inspector,  but 
is  the  constant  practice  of  worker  and  foremen,  in 
order  that  work  may  be  of  such  a  quality  as  will 
merit  a  bonus. 

Senses  That  Are  Most  Utilized  Best  Trained. — 
The  relative  training  given  to  the  various  senses  de- 
pends on  the  nature  of  the  work.  When  the  ear  is 
the  tester  of  efficiency,  as  it  often  is  with  an  engineer 
watching  machinery  in  action,  emphasis  is  laid  on 
training  the  hearing.  In  work  where  touch  is  impor- 
tant, emphasis  is  on  such  training  as  will  develop  that 
sense. ^^ 

^2  F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Bricklaying  System,  chap.  I,   Training  of  Ap- 
prentices. 


TEACHING  231 

Variations  in  Sense  Power  Should  Be  Utilized. — 

Investigations  are  constantly  going  to  prove  that 
each  sense  has  a  predominance  at  a  different  time  in 
the  age  of  the  child  or  man,  Dottoressa  Montes- 
sori's  experience  w^ith  teaching  very  young  children 
by  touch  shoves  that  that  sense  is  able  to  discriminate 
to  an  extraordinary  extent  for  the  first  six  years  of 
life.i* 

So,  also,  acute  keenness  of  any  sense,  by  reason 
of  age  or  experience  should  be  conserved.^*  Such 
acuteness  is  often  the  result  of  some  need,  and,  un- 
less consciously  preserved,  will  vanish  with  the  need. 

Progress  in  Such  Training. —  The  elementary  sense 
experiences  are  defined  and  described  by  Calkins. ^^ 
Only  through  a  psychological  study  can  one  reahze 
the  numerous  elements  and  the  possibility  of  study. 
As  yet,  doubtless.  Scientific  Management  misses 
many  opportunities  for  training  and  utilizing  the 
senses.  But  the  standardizing  of  elements,  and  the 
realization  of  the  importance  of  more  and  more  in- 
tensive study  of  the  elements  lends  assurance  that 
ultimately  all  possibilities  will  be  utilized. 

As  Many  Senses  as  Possible  Appealed  To. —  Scien- 
tific Management  has  made  great  progress  in  appeal- 
ing to  as  many  senses  as  possible  in  its  teaching. 
The  importance  of  the  relation  between  the  senses 
is  brought  out  by  Prof.  Stratton.^^ 

In    teaching,    Scientific    Management    has,    in    its 

''■^  McC lure's  Magazine,  May,  191 1,  Dec,  191 1,  Jan.,  1912. 
1*  As  a  woodman's  keenness  of  hearing. 
1^  M.  W.  Calkins,  A  First  Book  in  Psychology,  chap.  III. 
18  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  chap.  VII. 


232  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

teachers,  animate  and  inanimate,  great  possibilities 
of  appealing  to  many  senses  simultaneously.  The  in- 
struction card  may  be 

1.  read  to  oneself  silently  —  eyes  appealed  to 

2.  read  to  oneself  aloud  —  eyes  and  ears  appealed 
to,  also  muscles  used  trained  to  repeat 

3.  read  aloud  to  one  —  ears 

4.  read  aloud  to  one  and  also  read  silently  by  one, — 
eyes  and  ears 

5.  read  aloud,  and  at  the  same  time  copied  —  eyes, 
ears,  muscles  of  mouth,  muscles  of  hand 

6.  read  to  one,  while  process  described  is  demon- 
strated 

7.  read  to  one  while  process  is  performed  by  one- 
self 

There  are  only  a  few  of  the  possible  combinations, 
any  of  which  are  used,  as  best  suits  the  worker  and 
the  work.^'^ 

Untrained  Worker  Requires  Appeal  to  Most 
Senses. —  The  value  of  appeal  to  many  senses  is  best 
realized  in  teaching  an  inexperienced  worker.  His 
senses  help  to  remind  him  what  to  do,  and  to  "  check 
up  "  his  results. 

At  Times  Appeal  to  But  One  Sense  Preferable. — 
In  the  case  of  work  that  must  be  watched  constantly, 
and  that  involves  continuous  processes,  it  may  prove 
best  to  have  directions  read  to  the  worker.  So  also, 
the  Gang  Instruction  Card  may  often  be  read  to  ad- 
vantage to  the  gang,  thus  allowing  the  next  member 
of  a  group  of  members  to  rest,  or  to  observe,  while  di- 
rections are  taken  in  through  the  ears  only.  In  this 
17  Compare  with  an  actor's  learning  a  part. 


TEACHING  233 

way  time  is  allowed  to  overcome  fatigue,  yet  the 
work  is  not  halted. 

At  Times  One  Sense  Is  Best  Not  Utilized. — At 
times  teaching  may  well  omit  one  sense  in  its  appeal, 
because  that  sense  will  tend  to  confuse  the  learning, 
and  will,  when  the  method  is  learned,  be  otherwise 
utilized  than  it  could  be  during  the  learning  process. 
In  teaching  the  "  touch  system  "  of  typewriting,^*  the 
position  of  the  keys  is  quickly  remembered  by  hav- 
ing the  key  named  aloud  and  at  the  same  time  struck 
with  the  assigned  finger,  the  eyes  being  blindfolded. 
Thus  hearing  is  utilized,  also  mouth  muscles  and 
finger  muscles,  but  not  sight. 

Importance  of  Fatigue  Recognized. —  A  large  part 
of  the  success  of  sense  appeal  and  sense  training  of 
Scientific  Management  is  in  the  appreciation  of  the 
importance  of  fatigue.  This  was  early  recognized  by 
Dr.  Taylor,  and  is  constantly  receiving  study  from 
all  those  interested  in  Scientific  Management. 

Psychology  Already  Aiding  the  Industries  in  Such 
Study. —  Study  of  the  Psychological  Reviezv  will 
demonstrate  the  deep  and  increasing  interest  of  psy- 
chologists in  the  subject  of  fatigue.  The  importance 
of  such  stimulating  and  helpful  work  as  that  done  by 
Doctor  A.  Imbert  of  the  University  of  Montpellier, 
France,  is  great.^^  Not  only  are  the  results  of  his 
investigations  commercially  valuable,  but  also  they  are 
valuable  as  indicating  the  close  connection  between 
Psychology  and  Industrial  Efficiency. 

18  As  proved  by  experimenting  with  a  six-year-old  child. 

19  Imbert,  Etudes  experimentales  de  travail  professionnel 
ouvrier,  Sur  la  fatigue  engendree  par  les  mouvements  rapides. 


234  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Importance  of  Habits.^" —  Prof.  William  James  says 
"  an  acquired  habit,  from  the  psychological  point  of 
view,  is  nothing  but  a  new  pathway  of  discharge 
formed  in  the  brain,  by  which  certain  incoming  cur- 
rents ever  after  tend  to  escape." 

And  again, — "  First,  habit  simplifies  our  move- 
ments, makes  them  accurate,  and  diminishes  fa- 
tigue," ^^  and  habit  diminishes  the  conscious  attention 
with  which  our  acts  are  performed.  Again  he  says, 
page  144,  "  The  great  thing,  then,  in  all  education,  is 
to  make  our  nervous  system  our  ally  instead  of  an 
enemy;  as  it  is  to  fund  and  capitalize  our  acquisitions, 
and  live  at  ease  upon  the  interest  of  the  fund.  For 
this  we  must  make  automatic  and  habitual,  as  early 
as  possible,  as  many  useful  actions  as  we  can,  and 
guard  against  the  growing  into  ways  that  are  likely 
to  be  disadvantageous  to  us,  as  we  should  guard 
against  the  plague." 

These  quotations  demonstrate  the  importance  of 
habit. 

How  deep  these  paths  of  discharge  are,  is  illus- 
trated by  the  fact  that  often  a  German,  having  spent 
the  early  years  of  his  school  life  in  Germany,  will, 
even  after  learning  to  speak,  read,  write  and  think  in 
English,  find  it  difficult  to  figure  in  anything  but 
German. 

Habit  Easily  Becomes  the  Master.-^  Another  illus- 
tration of  the  power  of  habit  is  exhibited  by  the  brick- 
layer, who  has  been  trained  under  old-time  methods, 

20  William  James,  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  p.  134. 
^'^  Ibid,,  p.   138.    William  James,   Psychology,   Advanced  Course, 
p.  112. 


TEACHING  235 

and  who  attempts  to  follow  the  packet  method.  The 
standard  motions  for  picking  up  the  upper  row  of 
bricks  from  the  packet  are  entirely  different  from 
those  for  picking  up  the  lower  row.  The  bricklayers 
were  taught  this,  yet  invariably  used  the  old-time  mo- 
tions for  picking  up  the  bricks,  in  spite  of  the  waste 
involved.^^ 

Wrong  Preconceived  Ideas  Hamper  Develop- 
ment.—  Wrong  habits  or  ideas  often  retard  develop- 
ment. For  example,  it  took  centuries  for  artists  to 
see  the  colors  of  shadows  correctly,  because  they 
were  sure  that  such  shadows  were  a  darker  tone  of 
the  color  itself.^^ 

Teaching  Under  Scientific  Management  Results  in 
Good  Habits. —  The  aim  of  teaching  under  Scien- 
tific Management,  as  has  been  said,  is  to  create  good 
habits  of  thinking  and  good  habits  of  doing. 

Standards  Lead  to  Right  Methods  of  Thinking  and 
Acting. —  The  standards  of  Scientific  Management, 
as  presented  to  the  worker  in  the  instruction  card, 
lead  to  good  habits,  in  that  they  present  the  best 
known  method  of  doing  the  work.  They  thus  aid 
the  beginner,  in  that  he  need  waste  no  time  search- 
ing for  right  methods,  but  can  acquire  right  habits 
at  once.  They  aid  the  worker  trained  under  an  older, 
supplanted  method,  in  that  they  wage  a  winning  war 
against  oW-time,  worn-out  methods  and  traditions. 
Old  motor  images,  which  tend  to  cause  motions,  are 
overcome  by  standard  images,  which  suggest,  and 
pass  into,   standard  motions.     The   spontaneous  re- 

22  F.  B.  Gilbrelh,  Bricklaying  System,  p.  142. 

23  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  p.  214. 


236  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

curring  of  images  under  the  old  method  is  the 
familiar  cause  of  inattention  and  being  unable  to  get 
down  to  business,  and  the  real  cause  of  the  expression, 
"  You  can't  teach  old  dogs  new  tricks."  On  the  other 
hand,  the  spontaneous  recurrence  of  the  images  of  the 
standard  method  is  the  cause  of  greater  speed  of 
movement  of  the  experienced  man,  and  these  images 
of  the  standard  methods  do  recur  often  enough  to 
drive  down  the  old  images  and  to  enable  all  men 
who  desire,  to  settle  down  and  concentrate  upon  what 
they  are  doing. 

Through  Standards  Bad  Habits  Are  Quickest 
Broken. —  Through  the  standards  the  bad  habit  is 
broken  by  the  abrupt  acquisition  of  a  new  habit. 
This  is  at  once  practiced,  is  practiced  without  excep- 
tion, and  is  continually  practiced  until  the  new  habit 
is  in  control.^* 

Through  Standards  New  Habits  Are  Quickest 
Formed. —  These  same  standards,  as  presented  in 
teaching,  allow  of  the  speediest  forming  of  habits,  in 
that  repetition  is  exact  and  frequent,  and  is  kept  so 
by  the  fact  that  the  worker's  judgment  seconds  that 
of  the  teacher. 

Habits  Are  Instilled  by  Teaching. —  The  chief  func- 
tion of  the  teacher  during  the  stage  that  habits  are 
being  formed  is  the  instilling  of  good  habits. 

Methods  of  Instilling  Good  Habits. —  This  he  does 
by  insisting  on 

I.  right  motions  first,  that  is  to  say, —  the  right 
number  of  right  motions  in  the  right  sequence. 

2*  Prof.  Bain,  quoted  in  William  James'  Psychology,  Briefer 
Course,  pp.  145-147, 


TEACHING  237 

2.  speed  of  motions  second,  that  is  to  say,  con- 
stantly increasing  speed. 

3.  constantly  improving  quality.^^ 

This  Method  Is  Contrary  to  Most  Old-time  Prac- 
tice.—  Under  most  old-time  practice  the  quality  of 
the  work  was  the  first  consideration,  the  quantity  of 
work  the  second,  and  the  methods  of  achieving  the 
results  the  third. 

Results  of  Old-time  Practice. —  As  a  result,  the  me- 
chanical reactions,  which  were  expected  constantly  to 
follow  the  improved  habits  of  work,  were  constantly 
hindered  by  an  involuntary  impulse  of  the  muscles  to 
follow  the  old  methods.  Waste  time  and  low  output 
followed. 

Some  Early  Recognition  of  "Right  Motions 
First." —  The  necessity  of  teaching  the  right  motions 
first  was  early  recognized  by  a  few  progressive  spirits, 
as  is  shown  in  military  tactics;  for  example,  see  pages 
6  and  7,  "  Cavalry  Tactics  of  U.  S.  A."  1879,  D.  Apple- 
ton,  also  page  51. 

Note  also  motions  for  grooming  the  horse,  page 
473.  These  directions  not  only  teach  the  man  how, 
but  accustoms  the  horse  to  the  sequence  and  location 
of  motions  that  he  may  expect. 

Benefits  of  Teaching  Right  Motions  First. — 
Through  teaching  right  motions  first  reactions  to 
stimuli  gain  in  speed.  The  right  habit  is  formed  at 
the  outset.  With  the  constant  insistence  on  these 
right  habits  that  result  from  right  motions,  will  come, 
naturally,  an  increase  in  speed,  which  should  be  fos- 
tered until  the  desired  ultimate  speed  is  reached. 

25  F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Bricklaying  System,  para.  18-19. 


238  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Ultimately,  Standard  Quality  Will  Result.— The 

result  of  absolute  insistence  on  right  motions  will  be 
prescribed  quality,  because  the  standard  motions  pre- 
scribed were  chosen  because  they  best  produced  the 
desired  result. 

Under  Scientific  Management  No  Loss  from 
Quality  During  Learning. —  As  will  be  shown  later, 
Scientific  Management  provides  that  there  shall  be 
little  or  no  loss  from  the  quahty  of  the  work  dur- 
ing the  learning  period.  The  delay  in  time  before 
the  learner  can  be  said  to  produce  such  work  as  could 
a  learner  taught  where  quality  was  insisted  upon 
first  of  all,  is  more  than  compensated  for  by  the  ul- 
timate combination  of  speed  and  quality  gained. 

Results  of  Teaching  the  Right  Motions  First  Are 
Far-reaching. —  There  is  no  more  important  subject 
in  this  book  on  the  Psychology  of  Management  than 
this  of  teaching  right  motions  first.  The  most  im- 
portant results  of  Scientific  Management  can  all,  in 
the  last  analysis,  be  formulated  in  terms  of  habits, 
even  to  the  underlying  spirit  of  cooperation  which,  as 
we  shall  show  in  "  Welfare,"  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant ideas  of  Scientific  Management.  These  right 
habits  of  Scientific  Management  are  the  cause,  as  well 
as  the  result,  of  progress,  and  the  right  habits,  which 
have  such  a  tremendous  psychological  importance, 
are  the  result  of  insisting  that  right  motions  be  used 
from  the  very  beginning  of  the  first  day. 

From  Right  Habits  of  Motion  Comes  Speed  of 
Motions. —  Concentrating  the  mind  on  the  next  mo- 
tion causes  speed  of  motion.  Under  Scientific  Man- 
agement, the  underlying  thought  of  sequence  of  mo- 


TEACHING  239 

tions  is  so  presented  that  the  worker  can  remember 
them,  and  make  them  in  the  shortest  time  possible. 

Response  to  Standards  Becomes  Almost  Auto- 
matic.—  The  standard  methods,  being  associated 
from  the  start  with  right  habits  of  motions  only,  cause 
an  almost  automatic  response.  There  are  no  dis- 
carded habits  to  delay  response. 

Steady  Nerves  Result. —  Oftentimes  the  power  to 
refrain  from  action  is  quite  as  much  a  sign  of  educa- 
tion and  training  as  the  power  to  react  quickly  from 
a  sensation.  Such  conduct  is  called,  in  some  cases, 
"  steady  nerves."  The  forming  of  right  habits  is 
a  great  aid  toward  these  steady  nerves.  The  man 
who  knows  that  he  is  taught  the  right  way,  is  able 
almost  automatically  to  resist  any  suggestions  which 
come  to  him  to  carry  out  wrong  ways.  So  the  man 
who  is  absolutely  sure  of  his  method,  for  example, 
in  laying  brick,  will  not  be  tempted  to  make  those 
extra  motions  which,  after  all,  are  merely  an  ex- 
hibition in  his  hand  of  the  vacillation  that  is  going 
on  in  his  brain,  as  to  whether  he  really  is  handling 
that  brick  in  exactly  the  most  efficient  manner,  or 
not. 

Reason  and  Will  Are  Educated. — "The  education 
of  hand  and  muscle  implies  a  corresponding  training 
of  reasoning  and  will;  and  the  coordination  of  move- 
ments accompanies  the  coordination  of  thoughts."  ^^ 

The  standards  of  Scientific  Management  educate 
hand  and  muscle;  the  education  of  hand  and  muscle 
train  the  mind;  the  mind  improves  the  standards. 
Thus  we  have  a  continuous  cycle. 

26  M.  W.  Calkins,  A  First  Book  in  Psychology,  p.  354. 


240  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Judgment   Results   with   No   Waste    o£    Time. — 

Judgment  is  the  outcome  of  learning  the  right  way, 
and  knowing  that  it  is  the  right  way.  There  is  none 
of  the  lost  time  of  "  trying  out "  various  methods 
that  exists  under  Traditional  Management. 

This  power  of  judgment  will  not  only  enable  the 
possessor  to  decide  correctly  as  to  the  relative  merits 
of  different  methods,  but  also  somewhat  as  to  the 
past  history  and  possibilities  of  different  workers. 

This,  again,  illustrates  the  wisdom  of  Scientific 
Management  in  promoting  from  the  ranks,  and  thus 
^providing  that  every  member  of  the  organization 
shall,  ultimately,  know  from  experience  how  to  esti- 
mate and  judge  the  work  of  others. 

Habits  of  Attention  Formed  by  Scientific  Man- 
agement.—  The  good  habits  which  result  from  teach- 
ing standard  methods  result  in  habits  of  attention. 
The  standards  aid  the  mind  in  holding  a  "  selective 
attitude,"  ^"^  by  presenting  events  in  an  orderly  se- 
quence. The  conditions  under  which  the  work  is 
done,  and  the  incentives  for  doing  it,  provide  that  the 
attention  shall  be  "  lively  and  prolonged." 

Prescribed  Motions  Afford  Rhythm  and  .Esthetic 
Pleasure. —  The  prescribed  motions  that  result  from 
motion  study  and  time  study,  and  that  are  arranged 
in  cycles,  afford  a  rhythm  that  allows  the  attention 
to  "  glide  over  some  beats  and  linger  on  others,"  as 
Prof.  Stratton  describes  it,  in  a  different  connection.^^ 
So  also  the  "  perfectly  controlled "  movements, 
which  fall  under  the  direction  of  a  guiding  law,  and 

27  James  Sully,  The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology,  p.  119. 

28  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  p.  99. 


TEACHING  241 

which  "  obey  the  will  absolutely,"  ^^  give  an  aesthetic 
pleasure  and  afford  less  of  a  tax  upon  the  attention. 

Instruction  Card  Creates  and  Holds  Attention. — 
As  has  been  already  said  in  describing  the  instruction 
card  under  Standardization,  it  was  designed  as  a  re- 
sult of  investigations  as  to  what  would  best  secure 
output, —  to  attract  and  hold  the  attention.^"  Pro- 
viding, as  it  does,  all  directions  that  an  experienced 
worker  is  likely  to  need,  he  can  confine  his  attention 
solely  to  his  work  and  his  card ;  usually,  after  the  card 
is  once  studied,  to  his  work  alone.  The  close  rela- 
tion of  the  elements  of  the  instruction  card  affords 
a  field  for  attention  to  lapse,  and  be  recalled  in  the 
new  elements  that  are  constantly  made  apparent. 

Oral  Individual  Teaching  Fosters  Concentrated  At- 
tention.—  The  fact  that  under  Scientific  Management 
oral  teaching  is  individual,  not  only  directly  concen- 
trates the  attention  of  the  learner  upon  what  he  is 
being  taught,  but  also  indirectly  prevents  distraction 
from  fear  of  ridicule  of  others  over  the  question,  or 
embarrassment  in  talking  before  a  crowd. 

The  Bulletin  Board  Furnishes  the  Element  of 
Change.—  In  order  that  interest  or  attention  may  be 
held,  there  must  be  provision  for  allied  subjects  on 
which  the  mind  is  to  wander.  This,  under  Scientific 
Management,  is  constantly  furnished  by  the  collec- 
tion of  jobs  ahead  on  the  bulletin  board.  The  tasks 
piled  up  ahead  upon  this  bulletin  board  provide  a 
needed  and  ready  change  for  the  subject  of  attention 

28  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  p.  240. 
s*  Attracting  the   attention  is   largely  a   matter   of   appealing  to 
what  is  known  to  interest,  for  example,  to  a  known  ambition. 


242  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

or  interest,  which  conserves  the  economic  value  of 
concentrated  attention  of  the  worker  upon  his  work. 
Such  future  tasks  furnish  sufficient  range  of  subject 
for  wandering  attention  to  rest  the  mind  from  the 
wearying  effect  of  overconcentration  or  forced  at- 
tention. The  assigned  task  of  the  future  system- 
atizes the  "  stream  of  attention,"  and  an  orderly 
scheme  of  habits  of  thought  is  installed.  When  the 
scheme  is  an  orderly  shifting  of  attention,  the  mind 
is  doing  its  best  work,  for,  while  the  standardized  ex- 
treme subdivision  of  Taylor's  plan,  the  comparison 
of  the  ultimate  unit,  and  groupings  of  units  of  future 
tasks  are  often  helps  in  achieving  the  present  tasks, 
without  such  a  definite  orderly  scheme  for  shifting 
the  attention  and  interest,  the  attention  will  shift  to 
useless  subjects,  and  the  result  will  be  scattered. 

Incentives  Maintain  Interest. — ^The  knowledge  that 
a  prompt  reward  will  follow  success  stimulates  in- 
terest. The  knowledge  that  this  reward  is  sure  con- 
centrates attention  and  thus  maintains  interest. 

In  the  same  way,  the  assurance  of  promotion,  and 
the  fact  that  the  worker  sees  those  of  his  own  trade 
promoted,  and  knows  it  is  to  the  advantage  of  the 
management,  as  well  as  to  his  advantage,  that  he  also 
be  promoted, —  this  also  maintains  interest  in  the 
work. 

This  Interest  Extends  to  the  Work  of  Others.— 
The  interest  is  extended  to  the  work  of  others,  not 
only  by  the  interrelated  bonuses,  but  also  by  the  fact 
that  every  man  is  expected  to  train  up  a  man  to  take 
his  place,  before  he  is  promoted. 

Close  Relationship  of  All  Parts  of  Scientific  Man- 


TEACHING  243 

agement  Holds  Interest. —  The  attention  of  the  en- 
tire organization,  as  well  as  of  the  individual  worker, 
is  held  by  Scientific  Management  and  its  teaching, 
because  all  parts  of  Scientific  Management  are  re- 
lated, and  because  Scientific  Management  provides 
for  scientifically  directed  progression.  Every  mem- 
ber of  the  organization  knows  that  the  standards 
which  are  taught  by  Scientific  Management  contain 
the  permanent  elements  of  past  successes,  and  pro- 
vide for  such  development  as  will  assure  progress  and 
success  in  the  future.  Every  member  of  the  or- 
ganization realizes  that  upon  his  individual  coopera- 
tion depends,  in  part,  the  stability  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement, because  it  is  based  on  universal  cooperation. 
This  provides  an  intensity  and  a  continuity  of  inter- 
est that  would  still  hold,  even  though  some  particular 
element  might  lose  its  interest. 

This  Relationship  Also  Provides  for  Associa- 
tions.—  The  close  relationship  of  all  parts  of  Scien- 
tific Management  provides  that  all  ideas  are  as- 
sociated, and  are  so  closely  connected  that  they  can 
act  as  a  single  group,  or  any  selected  number  of  ele- 
ments can  act  as  a  group. 

Scientific  Management  Establishes  Brain  Groups 
That  Habitually  Act  in  Unison. —  Professor  Read,  in 
describing  the  general  mental  principle  of  association 
says,  "  When  any  number  of  brain  cells  have  been  in 
action  together,  they  form  a  habit  of  acting  in  unison, 
so  that  when  one  of  them  is  stimulated  in  a  certain 
way,  the  others  will  also  behave  in  the  way  estab- 
lished by  the  habit."  ^^     This  working  of  the  brain  is 

81  M,  S.  Read,  An  Introductory  Psychology,  p.  183. 


244  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

recognized  in  grouping  of  motions,  such  as  "  playing 
for  position."  ^2  Scientific. Management  provides  the 
groups,  the  habit,  and  the  stimulus,  all  according  to 
standard  methods,  so  that  the  result  is  largely  pre- 
dictable. 

Method  of  Establishing  Such  Groups  in  the 
Worker's  Brain. —  The  standard  elements  of  Scien- 
tific Management  afford  units  for  such  groups. 
Eventually,  with  the  use  of  such  elements  in  instruc- 
tion cards,  would  be  formed,  in  the  minds  of  the 
worker,  such  groups  of  units  as  would  aid  in  foresee- 
ing results,  just  as  the  foreseeing  of  groups  of  moves 
aids  the  expert  chess  or  checker  player.  The  size 
and  number  of  such  groups  would  indicate  the  skill 
of  the  worker. 

That  such  skill  may  be  gained  quickest,  Scientific 
Management  synthesizes  the  units  into  definite 
groups,  and  teaches  these  to  the  workers  as 
groups. 

Teaching  Done  by  Means  of  Motion  Cycles. —  The 
best  group  is  that  which  completes  the  simplest  cycle 
of  performance.  This  enables  the  worker  to  associ- 
ate certain  definite  motions,  to  make  these  into 
a  habit,  and  to  concentrate  his  attention  upon  the 
cycle  as  a  whole,  and  not  upon  the  elementary  mo- 
tions of  which  it  is  composed. 

For  example  —  The  cycle  of  the  pick  and  dip  proc- 
ess of  bricklaying  is  to  pick  up  a  brick  and  a  trowel 
full  of  mortar  simultaneously  and  deposit  them  on 
the  wall  simultaneously.^^     The  string  mortar  method 

32  F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Motion  Study,  p.  83. 
^^Ibid.,  Bricklaying  System,  para.  555-557. 


TEACHING  245 

has  two  cycles,  which  are,  first  to  pick  a  certain  num- 
ber of  trowelfuls  of  mortar  and  deposit  them  on  the 
wall,  and  then  to  pick  up  a  corresponding  number 
of  bricks  and  deposit  them  on  the  wall.^*  Each  cycle 
of  these  two  methods  consists  of  an  association  of 
units  that  can  be  remembered  as  a  group. 

Such  Cycles  Induce  Speed. —  The  worker  who  has 
been  taught  thus  to  associate  the  units  of  attention 
and  action  into  definite  rhythmic  cycles,  is  the  one 
who  is  most  efficient,  and  least  fatigued  by  a  given 
output.  The  nerves  acquire  the  habit,  as  does  the 
brain,  and  the  resulting  swift  response  to  stimulus 
characterizes  the  efficiency  of  the  specialist.^^ 

Scientific  Management  Restricts  Associations. — 
By  its  teaching  of  standard  methods,  Scientific  Man- 
agement restricts  association,  and  thus  gains  in  the 
speed  with  which  associated  ideas  arise,^®  Insistence 
on  causal  sequence  is  a  great  aid.  This  is  rendered 
by  the  Systems,  which  give  the  reasons,  and  make  the 
standard  method  easy  to  remember. 

Scientific  Management  Presents  Scientifically  De- 
rived Knowledge  to  the  Memory. —  Industrial  mem- 
ory is  founded  on  experience,  and  that  experience  that 
is  submitted  by  teaching  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment to  the  mind  is  in  the  form  of  scientifically  de- 
rived standards.     These  furnish 

(a)  data  that  is  correct. 

(b)  images   that   are   an   aid   in   acquiring  new 
habits  of  forming  efficient  images. 

8*F.  B.  Gilbreth,  Bricklaying  System,  p.  150. 

35  M.  S,  Read,  An  Introductory  Psychology,  pp.  179-194. 

36  G.  M.  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  p.  42. 


246  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

(c)  standards  of  comparison,   and  constant  de- 
mands for  comparison. 

(d)  such  arrangement  of  elements  that  reasoning 
processes  are  stimulated. 

(e)  conscious,  efficient  grouping. 

(f)  logical  association  of  ideas. 

Provision  for  Repetition  of  Important  Ideas. — 
Professor  Ebbinghaur  says,  "  Associations  that  have 
equal  reproductive  power  lapse  the  more  slowly,  the 
older  they  are,  and  the  oftener  they  have  been  re- 
viewed by  renewed  memorizing."  Scientific  Manage- 
ment provides  for  utilizing  this  law  by  teaching  right 
motions  first,  and  by  so  minutely  dividing  the  elements 
of  such  motions  that  the  smallest  units  discovered  are 
found  frequently,  in  similar  and  different  operations. 

Best  Periods  for  Memorizing  Utilized. —  As  for 
education  of  the  memory,  there  is  a  wide  difference 
of  opinion  among  leading  psychologists  in  regard  to 
whether  or  not  the  memorizing  faculty,  as  the  whole, 
can  be  improved  by  training;  but  all  agree  that  those 
things  which  are  specially  desired  to  be  memorized 
can  be  learned  more  easily,  and  more  quickly,  un- 
der some  conditions  than  under  others : 

For  example,  there  is  a  certain  time  of  day,  for 
each  person,  when  the  memory  is  more  efficient  than 
at  other  times.  This  is  usually  in  the  morning,  but 
is  not  always  so.  The  period  when  memorizing  is 
easiest  is  taken  advantage  of,  and,  as  far  as  possible, 
new  methods  and  new  instruction  cards  are  passed 
out  at  that  time  when  the  worker  is  naturally  best 
fitted  to  remember  what  is  to  be  done. 

Individual  Differences  Respected. —  It  is  a  ques- 


TEACHING  347 

tion  that  varies  with  different  conditions,  whether  the 
several  instruction  cards  beyond  the  one  he  is  work- 
ing on  shall  be  given  to  the  worker  ahead  of  time, 
that  he  may  use  his  own  judgment  as  to  when  is  the 
best  time  to  learn,  or  whether  he  shall  have  but  one 
at  a  time,  and  concentrate  on  that.  For  certain  dis- 
positions, it  is  a  great  help  to  see  a  lon§j,line  of  work 
ahead.  They  enjoy  getting  the  work  done,  and  feel- 
ing that  they  are  more  or  less  ahead  of  record. 
Others  become  confused  if  they  see  too  much  ahead, 
and  would  rather  attack  but  one  problem  at  a  time. 
This  fundamental  difference  in  types  of  mind  should 
be  taken  advantage  of  when  laying  out  material  to 
be  memorized. 

Aid  of  Mnemonic  Symbols  to  the  Memory. —  The 
mnemonic  classifications  furnish  a  place  where  the 
worker  who  remembers  but  little  of  a  method  or 
process  can  go,  and  recover  the  full  knowledge  of 
that  which  he  has  forgotten.  Better  still,  they  fur- 
nish him  the  equivalent  of  memory  of  other  experi- 
ences that  he  has  never  had,  and  that  are  in  such 
form  that  he  can  connect  this  with  his  memory  of  his 
own  personal  experience. 

The  ease  with  which  a  learner  or  skilled  mechanic 
can  associate  new,  scientifically  derived  data  with  his 
memory,  because  of  the  classifications  of  Scientific 
Management,  is  a  most  important  cause, of  workers 
being  taught  quicker,  and  being  more  intelligent, 
under  Scientific  Management,  than  under  any  other 
type  of  management. 

Proper  Learning  Insures  Proper  Remembering. — 
Professor  Read  says,  "  Take  care  of  the  learning  and 


248  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

the  remembering  will  take  care  of  itself."  ^'^  Scien- 
tific Management  both  provides  proper  knowledge, 
and  provides  that  this  shall  be  utilized  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  proper  remembering  will  ensue. 

Better  Habits  of  Remembering  Result. —  The  re- 
sults of  cultivating  the  memory  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement are  cumulative.  Ultimately,  right  habits  of 
remembering  result  that  aid  the  worker  automatically 
so  to  arrange  his  memory  material  as  to  utilize  it  bet- 
ter.^^ 

"  Imagination  "  Has  Two  Definitions. —  Professor 
Read  gives  definitions  for  two  distinct  means  of  Im- 
agination. 

1.  "  The  general  function  of  the  havmg  of  images." 

2.  "  The  particular  one  of  having  images  which  are 
not  consciously  memories  or  the  reproduction  of  the 
facts  of  experience  as  they  were  originally  presented 
to  consciousness."  ^^ 

Scientific  Management  Provides  Material  for 
Images. —  As  was  shown  under  the  discussion  of  the 
appeals  of  the  various  teaching  devices  of  Scientific 
Management, —  provision  is  made  for  the  four  classes 
of  imagination  of  Calkins  ^^- — ■■ 

1.  visual, 

2.  auditory, 

3.  tactual,  and 

4.  mixed. 

37  M.  S.  Read,  An  Introductory  Psychology,  p.  208. 

38  William  James,  Psychology,  Advanced  Course,  Vol.  I,  p.  667. 
2^  M.  S.  Read,  An  Introductory  Psychology,  pp.  212-213.     William 

James,  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  p.  302. 
*^  M.  W.  Calkins,  A  First  Book  in  Psychology,  p.  25. 


TEACHING  249 

It  Also  Realizes  the  Importance  of  Productive 
Imagination. —  Scientific  Management  realizes  that 
one  of  the  special  functions  of  teaching  the  trades  is 
systematic  exercising  and  guiding  of  imaginations  of 
apprentices  and  learners.  As  Professor  Ennis  says, — 
"  Any  kind  of  planning  ahead  will  result  in  some 
good,"  but  to  plan  ahead  most  effectively  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  well-developed  power  of  constructive 
imagination.  This  consists  of  being  able  to  construct 
new  mental  images  from  old  memory  images;  of 
being  able  to  modify  and  group  images  of  past  ex- 
periences, or  thoughts,  in  combination  with  new 
images  based  on  imagination,  and  not  on  experience. 
The  excellence  of  the  image  arrived  at  in  the  com- 
plete work  is  dependent  wholly  upon  the  training  in 
image  forming  in  the  past.  If  there  has  not  been 
a  complete  economic  system  of  forming  standard 
habits  of  thought,  the  worker  may  have  difficulty  in 
controlling  the  trend  of  associations  of  thought 
images,  and  difficulty  in  adding  entirely  new  images 
to  the  groups  of  experienced  images,  and  the  prob- 
lem to  be  thought  out  will  suffer  from  wandering  of 
the  mind.  The  result  will  be  more  like  a  dream  than 
a  well  balanced  mental  planning.  It  is  well  known 
that  those  apprentices,  and  journeymen  as  well,  are 
the  quickest  to  learn,  and  are  better  learners,  who 
have  the  most  vivid  imagination.  The  best  method 
of  teaching  the  trade,  therefore,  is  the  one  that  also 
develops  the  power  of  imagination. 

Scientific  Management  Assists  Productive  Imagina- 
tion.—  Scientific  Management  assists  productive,  or 
constructive,    imagination,    not    only    by    providing 


250  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

standard  units,  or  images,  from  which  the  results  may 
be  synthesized,  but  also,  through  the  unity  of  the  in- 
struction card,  allows  of  imagination  of  the  outcome, 
from  the  start. 

For  example, —  in  performing  a  prescribed  cycle  of 
motions,  the  worker  has  his  memory  images  grouped 
in  such  a  figure,  form,  or  sequence, —  often  geomet- 
rical,—  that  each  motion  is  a  part  of  a  growing,  clearly 
imagined  whole. 

The  elements  of  the  cycle  may  be  utilized  in  other 
entirely  new  cycles,  and  are,  as  provided  for  in  the 
opportunities  for  invention  that  are  a  part  of  Scien- 
tific Management. 

Judgment  the  Result  of  Faithful  Endeavor. — Judg- 
ment, or  the  "  mental  process  which  ends  in  an  affirm- 
ation or  negation  of  something,"  *^  comes  as  the  result 
of  experience,  as  is  admirably  expressed  by  Prof. 
James, —  "  Let  no  youth  have  any  anxiety  about  the 
upshot  of  his  education  whatever  the  line  of  it  may 
be.  If  he  keeps  faithfully  busy  each  hour  of  the  work- 
ing day,  he  may  safely  leave  the  final  result  to  itself. 
He  can  with  perfect  certainty  count  on  waking  up 
some  fine  morning,  to  find  himself  one  of  the  com- 
petent ones  of  his  generation,  in  whatever  pursuit  he 
may  have  singled  out.  Silently,  between  all  the  de- 
tails of  his  business,  the  power  of  judging  in  all  that 
class  of  matter  will  have  built  itself  up  within  him  as 
a  possession  that  will  never  pass  away.  Young  peo- 
ple should  know  this  truth  in  advance.'*^  The  igno- 
rance of  it  has  probably  engendered  more  discourage- 

*i  James  Sully,  The  Teacher's  Handbook  of  Psychology,  p.  290. 
*2  William  James,  Psychology,  Briefer  Course,  p.  150. 


TEACHING  asi 

ment  and  faint-heartedness  in  youths  embarking  on 
arduous  careers  than  all  other  causes  put  to- 
gether." 43 

Teaching  Supplies  This  Judgment  Under  Scientific 
Management. — Under  Scientific  Management  this 
judgment  is  the  result  of  teaching  of  standards  that 
are  recognized  as  such  by  the  learner.  Thus,  much 
time  is  eliminated,  and  the  apprentice  under  Scien- 
tific Management  can  work  with  all  the  assurance  as 
to»the  value  of  his  methods  that  characterized  the  sea- 
soned veterans  of  older  types  of  management. 

Teaching  Also  Utilizes  the  Judgment. — The  judg- 
ment that  is  supplied  by  Scientific  Management  is 
also  used  as  a  spring  toward  action.**  Scientific  Man- 
agement appeals  to  the  reason,  and  workers  perform 
work  as  they  do  because,  through  the  Systems  and 
otherwise,  they  are  persuaded  that  the  method  they 
employ  is  the  best. 

The  Power  of  Suggestion  Is  Also  Utilized.*'^ — The 
dynamic  power  of  ideas  is  recognized  by  Scientific 
Management,  in  that  the  instruction  card  is  put  in 
the  form  of  direct  commands,  which,  naturally,  lead 
to  immediate  action.  So,  also,  the  teaching  written, 
oral  and  object,  as  such,  can  be  directly  imitated  by 
the  learner.*® 

Imitation,  which  Dr.  Stratton  says  "  may  well  be 
counted  a  special  form  of  suggestion,"  will  be  dis- 
cussed later  in  this  chapter  at  length.**^ 

*3  W.  D.  Scott,  InHuencing  Men  in  Business,  chap.  II. 

^^Ibid.,  chap.  III. 

*^  W.  D.  Scott,  The  Theory  of  Advertising ,  p.  71. 

^^  W.  D.  Scott,  Increasing  Human  Efficiency  in  Business,  p.  41. 

*^  G.  M.  Stratton,  Experimental  Psychology  and  Culture,  p.  200. 


252  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Worker  Always  Has  Opportunity  to  Criticise  the 
Suggestion. — The  worker  is  expected  to  follow  the 
suggestion  of  Scientific  Management  without  delay, 
because  he  believes  in  the  standardization  on  which 
it  is  made,  and  in  the  management  that  makes  it. 
But  the  Systems  afford  him  an  opportunity  of  re- 
viewing the  reasonableness  of  the  suggestion  at  any 
time,  and  his  constructive  criticism  is  invited  and  re- 
warded. 

Suggestion  Must  Be  Followed  at  the  Time. — The 
suggestion  must  be  followed  at  the  time  it  is  given,  or 
its  value  as  a  suggestion  is  impaired.  This  is  pro- 
vided for  by  the  underlying  idea  of  cooperation  on 
which  Scientific  Management  rests,  which  molds  the 
mental  attitude  of  the  worker  into  that  form  where 
suggestions  are  quickest  grasped  and  followed. ^^ 

"  Native  Reactions  "  Enumerated  by  Prof.  James. 
— Prof.  James  enumerates  the  "  native  reactions  "  as 
(i)  fear,  (2)  love,  (3)  curiosity,  (4)  imitation,  (5) 
emulation,  (6)  ambition,  (7)  pugnacity,  (8)  pride,  (9) 
ownership,  (10)  constructiveness.*^  These  are  all 
considered  by  Scientific  Management.  Such  as  might 
have  a  harmful  effect  are  supplanted,  others  are  util- 
ized. 

Fear  Utilized  by  Ancient  Managers. — The  native 
reaction  most  utilized  by  the  first  managers  of  armies 
and  ancient  works  of  construction  was  that  of  fear. 
This  is  shown  by  the  ancient  rock  carvings,  which 
portray  what  happened  to  those  who  disobeyed."'* 

*8F.  W.  Taylor,  The  Principles  of  Scientific  Management,  p.  36. 
*9  William  James,  Talks  to  Teachers,  chap.  III. 
60  Knight's  Mechanical  Dictionary,  Vol.  HI,  p.  2204. 


TEACHING  253 

Fear  Still  Used  by  Traditional  Management. — Fear 
of  personal  bodily  injury  is  not  usual  under  modern 
Traditional  Management,  but  fear  of  less  progress, 
less  promotion,  less  remuneration,  or  of  discharge,  or 
of  other  penalties  for  inferior  effort  or  efificiency  is 
still  prevalent. 

Fear  Transformed  Under  Scientific  Management. 
— Under  Scientific  Management  the  worker  may  still 
fear  that  he  will  incur  a  penalty,  or  fail  to  deserve  a 
reward,  but  the  honest,  industrious  worker  experi- 
ences no  such  horror  as  the  old-time  fear  included. 
This  is  removed  by  his  knowledge 

1.  that  his  task  is  achievable. 

2.  that  his  work  will  not  injure  his  health. 

3.  that  he  may  be  sure  of  advancement  with  age 
and  experience. 

4.  that  he  is  sure  of  the  "  square  deal." 

Thus  such  fear  as  he  has,  has  a  good  and  not  an  evil 
effect  upon  him.  It  is  an  incentive  to  cooperate  will- 
ingly. Its  immediate  and  ultimate  effects  are  ad- 
vantageous. 

Love,  or  Loyalty,  Fostered  by  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.— ^The  worker's  knowledge  that  the  manage- 
ment plans  to  maintain  such  conditions  as  will  enable 
him  to  have  the  four  assurances  enumerated  above 
leads  to  love,  or  loyalty,  between  workers  and  em- 
ployers.^^ 

Far  from  Scientific  Management  abolishing  the  old 
personal  and  sympathetic  relations  between  em- 
ployers and  workers,  it  gives  opportunities  for  such 

^1  For  example,  see  W.  D.  Scott's  Increasing  Efficiency  in  Busi- 
ness, chap.  IV. 


254  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

relations  as  have  not  existed  since  the  days  of  the 
guilds,  and  the  old  apprenticeship.^^ 

The  cooperation  upon  which  Scientific  Management 
rests  does  away  with  the  traditional  "  warfare  "  be- 
tween employer  and  workers  that  made  permanent 
friendliness  almost  impossible.  Cooperation  induces 
friendliness  and  loyalty  of  each  member  in  the  organ- 
ization to  all  the  others. 

Mr.  Wilfred  Lewis  says,  in  describing  the  installa- 
tion of  Scientific  Management  in  his  plant,  "  We  had, 
in  effect,  been  installing  at  great  expense  a  new  and 
wonderful  means  for  increasing  the  efficiency  of  labor, 
in  the  benefits  of  which  the  workman  himself  shared, 
and  we  have  today  an  organization  second,  I  believe, 
to  none  in  its  loyalty,  efficiency  and  steadfastness  of 
purpose."  ^^  This  same  loyalty  of  the  workers  is 
plain  in  an  article  in  Industrial  Engineering,  on  "  Scien- 
tific Management  as  Viewed  from  the  Workman's 
Standpoint,"  where  various  men  in  a  shop  having 
Scientific  Management  were  interviewed.^*  After 
quoting  various  workers'  opinions  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement and  their  own  particular  shop,  the  writer 
says :  "  Conversations  with  other  men  brought  out 
practically  the  same  facts.  They  are  all  contented. 
They  took  pride  in  their  work,  and  seemed  to  be 
especially  proud  of  the  fact  that  they  were  employed 
in  the  Link-Belt  shops."  ^^ 

^^  R.  A.  Bray,  Boy  Labor  and  Apprenticeship,  chap.  II,  especially 
p.  8. 

^3  Wilfred  Lewis,  Proceedings  of  the  Congress  of  Technology, 
1911,  p.  175. 

•**  November,  1910. 

66  The  Link-Belt  Co.,  Philadelphia,  Pa. 


TEACHING  255 

Teaching  Under  Scientific  Management  Develops 
Such  Loyalty. — The  manner  of  teaching  under  Sci- 
entific Management  fosters  such  loyahy.  Only 
through  friendly  aid  can  both  teacher  and  taught 
prosper.  Also,  the  perfection  of  the  actual  workings 
of  this  plan  of  management  inspires  regard  as  well 
as  respect  for  the  employer. 

Value  of  Personality  Not  Eliminated. — It  is  a  great 
mistake  to  think  that  Scientific  Management  under- 
estimates the  value  of  personality.^^  Rather,  Scien- 
tific Management  enhances  the  value  of  an  admirable 
personality.  This  is  well  exemplified  in  the  Link- 
Belt  Co.,^'^  and  in  the  Tabor  Manufacturing  Co.  of 
Philadelphia,  as  well  as  on  other  work  where  Scien- 
tific Management  has  been  installed  a  period  of  sev- 
eral years. 

Curiosity  Aroused  by  Scientific  Management. — 
Scientific  Management  arouses  the  curiosity  of  the 
worker,  by  showing,  through  its  teaching,  glimpses 
of  the  possibilities  that  exist  for  further  scientific 
investigation.  The  insistence  on  standard  methods 
of  less  waste  arouses  a  curiosity  as  to  whether  still 
less  wasteful  methods  cannot  be  found. 

Curiosity  Utilized  by  Scientific  Management. — 
This  curiosity  is  very  useful  as  a  trait  of  the  learner, 
the  planner  and  the  investigator.  It  can  be  well  util- 
ized by  the  teacher  who  recognizes  it  in  the  learner, 
by  an  adaptation  of  methods  of  interpreting  the  in- 
struction card,  that  will  allow  of  partially  satisfying, 

^6  For  value  of  personality  see  J.  W.  Jenks's,  Governmental  Action 
for  Social  Welfare,  p.  226. 
^''^F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  311,  Harper  Ed.,  p.  143. 


256  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

and  at  the  same  time  further  exciting,  the  curios- 

In  selecting  men  for  higher  positions,  and  for 
special  work,  curiosity  as  to  the  work,  with  the  in- 
terest that  is  its  result,  may  serve  as  an  admirable 
indication  of  one  sort  of  fitness.  This  curiosity,  or 
general  interest,  is  usually  associated  with  a  personal 
interest  that  makes  it  more  intense,  and  more  easy 
to  utilize. 

Scientific  Management  Places  a  High  Value  on 
Imitation. — It  was  a  popular  custom  of  the  past  to 
look  down  with  scorn  on  the  individual  or  organiza- 
tion that  imitated  others.  Scientific  Management 
believes  that  to  imitate  with  great  precision  the  best, 
is  a  work  of  high  intelligence  and  industrial  efficiency. 

Scientific  Management  Uses  Both  Spontaneous 
and  Deliberate  Imitation. — Teaching  under  Scientific 
Management  induces  both  spontaneous  and  deliber- 
ate imitation.  The  standardization  prevalent,  and  the 
conformity  to  standards  exacted,  provide  that  this 
imitation  shall  follow  directed  lines. 

Spontaneous  Imitation  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment Has  Valuable  Results. —  Under  Scientific  Man- 
agement, the  worker  will  spontaneously  imitate  the 
teacher,  when  the  latter  has  been  demonstrating. 
This  leads  to  desired  results.  So,  also,  the  worker 
imitates,  more  or  less  spontaneously,  his  own  past 
methods  of  doing  work.  The  right  habits  early 
formed  by  Scientific  Management  insure  that  the  re- 
sults of  such  imitation  shall  be  profitable. 

Deliberate  Imitation  Constantly  Encouraged. — 
Deliberate   imitation  is  caused  more  than  anything 


TEACHING  as7 

else  by  the  fact  that  the  man  knows,  if  he  does  the 
thing  in  the  way  directed,  his  pay  will  be  increased. 

Such  imitation  is  also  encouraged  by  the  fact  that 
the  worker  is  made  to  believe  that  he  is  capable,  and 
has  the  will  to  overcome  obstacles.  He  knows  that 
the  management  believes  he  can  do  the  work,  or  the 
instruction  card  would  not  have  been  issued  to  him. 
Moreover,  he  sees  that  the  teacher  and  demonstrator 
is  a  man  promoted  from  his  rank,  and  he  is  convinced, 
therefore,  that  what  the  teacher  can  do  he  also  can 
do.^s 

Scientific  Management  Provides  Standards  for 
Imitation. — It  is  of  immense  value  in  obtaining  valu- 
able results  from  imitation,  that  Scientific  Manage- 
ment provides  standards.  Under  Traditional  Man- 
agement, it  was  almost  impossible  for  a  worker 
to  decide  which  man  he  should  imitate.  Even  though 
he  might  come  to  determine,  by  constant  observation, 
after  a  time,  which  man  he  desired  to  imitate,  he 
would  not  know  in  how  far  he  would  do  well  to 
copy  any  particular  method.  Recording  individually 
measured  output  under  Transitory  Management  al- 
lows of  determining  the  man  of  high  score,  and  either 
using  him  as  a  model,  or  formulating  his  method  into 
rules.  Under  Scientific  Management,  the  instruction 
card  furnishes  a  method  which  the  worker  knows 
that  he  can  imitate  exactly,  with  predetermined  re- 
sults. 

58  Compare  with  the  old  darkey,  who  took  her  sons  from  a  North- 
ern school,  where  the  teacher  was  white,  in  order  to  send  them  to 
a  Southern  school  having  a  colored  teacher  that  they  might  feel, 
as  they  looked  at  him,  "  What  that  nigger  can  do,  this  nigger  can 
do." 


258  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Imitation  Is  Expected  of  All. —  As  standardization 
applies  to  the  work  of  all,  so  imitation  of  standards  is 
expected  of  all.  This  fact  the  teacher  under  Scientific 
Management  can  use  to  advantage,  as  an  added  incen- 
tive to  imitation.  Any  dislike  of  imitation  is  further 
decreased,  by  making  clear  to  every  w^orker  that 
those  who  are  under  him  are  expected  to  imitate  him, 
—  and  that  he  must,  himself,  imitate  his  teachers,  in 
order  to  set*  a  worthy  example. 

Imitation  Leads  to  Emulation. — Imitation,  as  pro- 
vided for  by  teaching  under  Scientific  Management, 
and  admiration  for  the  skillful  teacher,  or  the  standard 
imitated,  naturally  stimulate  emulation.  This  emula- 
tion takes  three  forms : 

1.  Competition  with  the  records  of  others. 

2.  Competition  with  one's  own  record. 

3.  Competition  with  the  standard  record. 

No  Hard  Feeling  Aroused. —  In  the  first  sort  of 
competition  only  is  there  a  possibility  of  hard  feeling 
being  aroused,  but  danger  of  this  is  practically  elimi- 
nated by  the  fact  that  rewards  are  provided  for  all  who 
are  successful.  In  the  second  sort  of  competition, 
the  worker,  by  matching  himself  against  what  he  has 
done,  measures  his  own  increased  efficiency.  In  the 
third  sort  of  competition,  there  is  the  added  stimulus 
of  surprising  the  management  by  exceeding  the  task 
expected.  The  incentive  in  all  three  cases  is  not 
only  more  pay  and  a  chance  for  promotion,  but  also 
the  opportunity  to  win  appreciation  and  publicity  for 
successful  performance. 

Ambition  Is  Aroused. — ^The  outcome  of  emula- 
tion is  ambition.     This  ambition  is  stimulated  by  the 


TEACHING  259 

fact  that  promotion  is  so  rapid,  and  so  outlined  be- 
fore the  worker,  that  he  sees  the  chance  for  advance- 
ment himself,  and  not  only  advancement  that  means 
more  pay,  but  advancement  also  that  means  a  chance 
to  specialize  on  that  work  which  he  particularly  likes. 

Pugnacity  Utilized. —  Pugnacity  can  never  be  en- 
tirely absent  where  there  is  emulation.  Under 
Scientific  Management  it  is  used  to  overcome  not 
persons,  but  things.  Pugnacity  is  a  great  driving 
force.  It  is  a  wonderful  thing  that  under  Scientific 
Management  this  force  is  aroused  not  against  one's 
fellow-workers,  but  against  one's  work.  The  desire 
to  win  out,  to  fight  it  out,  is  aroused  against  a  large 
task,  which  the  man  desires  to  put  behind  him. 
Moreover,  there  is  nothing  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment which  forbids  an  athletic  contest.  While  the 
workers  would  not,  under  the  ultimate  form,  be  al- 
lowed to  injure  themselves  by  overspeeding,  a 
friendly  race  with  a  demonstration  of  pugnacity  which 
harms  no  one  is  not  frowned  upon. 

Pride  Is  Stimulated. —  Pride  in  one's  work  is 
aroused  as  soon  as  work  is  functionalized.  The  mo- 
ment a  man  has  something  to  do  that  he  likes  to  do, 
and  can  do  well,  he  takes  pride  in  it.  So,  also,  the 
fact  that  individuality,  and  personality,  are  recog- 
nized, and  that  his  records  are  shown,  makes  pride 
serve  as  a  stimulus.  The  outcome  of  the  worker's 
pride  in  his  work  is  pride  in  himself.  He  finds  that 
he  is  part  of  a  great  whole,  and  he  learns  to  take  pride 
in  the  entire  management, —  in  both  himself  and  the 
managers,  as  well  as  in  his  own  work. 

Feeling    of    Ownership    Provided    For. —  It    may 


26o  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

seem  at  first  glance  that  the  instinct  of  ownership  is 
neglected,  and  becomes  stunted,  under  Scientific 
Management,  in  that  all  tools  become  more  or  less 
standardized,  and  the  man  is  discouraged  from  having 
tools  peculiar  in  shape,  or  size,  for  whose  use  he  has 
no  warrant  except  long  time  of  use. 

Careful  consideration  shows  that  Scientific  Man- 
agement provides  two  opportunities  for  the  worker 
to  conserve  his  instinct  for  ownership, — 

1.  During  working  hours,  where  the  recognition  of 
his  personality  allows  the  worker  to  identify  himself 
with  his  work,  and  where  his  cooperation  with  the 
management  makes  him  identified  with  its  activities. 

2.  Outside  the  work.  He  has,  under  Scientific 
Management,  more  hours  away  from  work  to  enjoy 
ownership,  and  more  money  with  which  to  acquire 
those  things  that  he  desires  to  own. 

The  teacher  must  make  clear  to  him  both  these 
opportunities,  as  he  readily  can,  since  the  instinct  of 
ownership  is  conserved  in  him  in  an  identical  man- 
ner. 

Constructiveness  a  Part  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment.—  Every  act  that  the  worker  performs  is  con- 
structive, because  waste  has  been  eliminated,  and 
everything  that  is  done  is  upbuilding.  Teaching 
makes  this  clear  to  the  worker.  Constructiveness  is 
also  utilized  in  that  exercise  of  initiative  is  provided 
for.  Thus  the  instinct,  instead  of  being  weakened,  is 
strengthened  and  directed. 

Progress  in  Utilizing  Instincts  Demands  Psycho- 
logical Study. —  Teaching  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment can  never  hope  fully  to  understand  and  utilize 


TEACHING  261 

native  reactions,  until  more  assistance  has  been  given 
by  psychology.  At  the  present  time,  Scientific  Man- 
agement labors  under  disadvantages  that  must,  ulti- 
mately, be  removed.  Psychologists  must,  by  experi- 
ments, determine  more  accurately  the  reactions  and 
their  controlability.  More  thorough  study  must  be 
made  of  children  that  Scientific  Management  may 
understand  more  of  the  nature  of  the  reactions  of  the 
young  workers  who  come  for  industrial  training. 
Psychology  must  give  its  help  in  this  training. 
Then  only,  can  teaching  under  Scientific  Management 
become  truly  efficient. 

Scientific  Management  Realizes  the  Importance  of 
Training  the  Will. —  The  most  necessary,  and  most 
complex  and  difficult  part  of  Scientific  Management,  is 
the  training  of  the  will  of  all  members  of  the  organiza- 
tion. Prof.  Read  states  in  his  "  Psychology "  five 
means  of  training  or  influencing  the  will.  These 
are  ^^ 

"  I.  The  first  important  feature  in  training  the  will 
is  the  help  furnished  by  supplying  the  mind  with  a 
useful  body  of  ideas." 

"  2.  The  second  great  feature  of  the  training  of  the 
will  is  the  building  up  in  the  mind  of  the  proper  in- 
terests, and  the  habit  of  giving  the  attention  to  useful 
and  worthy  purposes." 

"  3.  Another  important  feature  of  the  training  of 
the  will  is  the  establishing  of  a  firm  association  be- 
tween ideas  and  actions,  or,  in  other  words,  the  form- 
ing of  a  good  set  of  habits." 

"  4.  Another  very  important  feature  of  the  training 

58  M.  S.  Read,  An  Introductory  Psychology,  pp.  297-303. 


262  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  the  will  has  reference  to  its  strength  of  purpose  or 
power  of  imitation." 

"  5.  The  matter  of  discipline." 

Teaching  under  Scientific  Management  does  supply 
these  five  functions,  and  thus  provide  for  the  strength- 
ening and  development  of  the  will. 

Variations  in  Teaching  of  Apprentices  and  Jour- 
neymen.—  Scientific  Management  must  not  only  be 
prepared  to  teach  apprentices,  as  must  all  types  of 
management,  it  must  also  teach  journeymen  who 
have  not  acquired  standard  methods. 

Apprentices  Are  Easily  Handled. —  Teaching  ap- 
prentices is  a  comparatively  simple  proposition,  far 
simpler  than  under  any  other  type  of  management. 
Standard  methods  enable  the  apprentice  to  become 
proficient  long  before  his  brother  could,  under  the 
old  type  of  teaching.  The  length  of  training  re- 
quired depends  largely  on  how  fingerwise  the  ap- 
prentice is. 

Older  Workers  Must  Be  Handled  with  Tact.— 
With  adult  workers,  the  problem  is  not  so  simple. 
Old  wrong  habits,  such  as  the  use  of  ineffective  mo- 
tions, must  be  eliminated.  Physically,  it  is  difficult 
for  the  adult  worker  to  alter  his  methods.  Moreover, 
it  may  be  most  difficult  to  change  his  mental  attitude, 
to  convince  him  that  the  methods  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement are  correct. 

A  successful  worker  under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment, who  is  proud  of  his  work,  will  often  be  ex- 
tremely sensitive  to  what  he  is  prone  to  regard  as 
the  "  criticism  "  of  Scientific  Management  with  re- 
gard to  him. 


TEACHING  263 

Appreciation  of  Varying  Viewpoints  Necessary. — 
No  management  can  consider  itself  adequate  that 
does  not  try  to  enter  into  the  mental  attitude  of  its 
workers.  Actual  practice  shows  that,  with  time  and 
tact,  almost  any  worker  can  be  convinced  that  all 
criticism  of  him  is  constructive,  and  that  for  him  to 
conform  to  the  new  standards  is  a  mark  of  added 
proficiency,  not  an  acknowledgment  of  ill-prepared- 
ness. The  "  Systems  "  do  much  toward  this  work  of 
reconciling  the  older  workers  to  the  new  methods, 
but  most  of  all  can  be  done  by  such  teachers  as  can 
demonstrate  their  own  change  from  old  to  standard 
methods,  and  the  consequent  promotion  and  suc- 
cess. This  is,  again,  an  opportunity  for  the  exercise 
of  personality. 

Scientific  Management  Provides  Places  for  Such 
Teaching. —  Under  the  methods  of  teaching  em- 
ployed by  Scientific  Management, —  right  motions 
first,  next  speed,  with  quality  as  a  resultant  product, 
—  it  is  most  necessary  to  provide  a  place  where 
learners  can  work.  The  standard  planning  of 
quality  provides  such  a  place.  The  plus  and  minus 
signs  automatically  divide  labor  so  that  the  worker 
can  be  taught  by  degrees,  being  set  at  first  where 
great  accuracy  is  not  demanded  by  the  work,  and 
being  shifted  to  work  requiring  more  accuracy  as 
he  becomes  more  proficient.  In  this  way  even  the 
most  untrained  worker  becomes  efficient,  and  is  en- 
gaged in  actual  productive  work. 

Measurement  of  Teaching  and  Learning. —  Under 
Scientific  Management  the  results  of  teaching  and 
learning  become   apparent  automatically  in  records 


264  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  output.  The  learner's  record  of  output  of  proper 
prescribed  quality  determines  what  pay  he  shall  re- 
ceive, and  also  has  a  proportionate  effect  on  the 
teacher's  pay.  Such  a  system  of  measurement  may 
not  be  accurate  as  a  report  of  the  learner's  gain, — 
for  he  doubtless  gains  mental  results  that  cannot 
be  seen  in  his  output, —  but  it  certainly  does  serve 
as  an  incentive  to  teaching  and  to  learning. 

Relation  of  Teaching  in  Scientific  Management  to 
Academic  Training  and  Vocational  Guidance.^^ — 
Teaching  under  Scientific  Management  can  never  be 
most  efficient  until  the  field  of  such  teaching  is  re- 
stricted to  training  learners  who  are  properly  pre- 
pared to  receive  industrial  training.^^  This  prepared- 
ness implies  fitting  school  and  academic  training,  and 
Vocational  Guidance. 

Learner  Should  Be  Manually  Adept.— r  The  learner 
should,  before  entering  the  industrial  world,  be 
taught  to  be  manually  adept,  or  fingerwise,  to  have 
such  control  over  his  trained  muscles  that  they  will 
respond  quickly  and  accurately  to  orders.  Such 
training  should  be  started  in  infancy ,^^  in  the  form  of 
guided  play,  as,  for  example,  whittling,  sewing,  knit- 
ting, handling  mechanical  toys  and  tools,  and  playing 
musical  instruments,  and  continued  up  to,  and  into, 
the  period  of  entering  a  trade. 

*o  Hugo  Miinsterberg,  American  Problems,  p.  29. 

®i  Morris  Llewellyn  Cooke,  Bulletin  No.  5  of  The  Carnegie  Foun- 
dation for  the  Advancement  of  Teaching,  p.  70.  William  Kent, 
Discussion  of  Paper  647,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  p.  891. 

82  A  well  known  athlete  started  throwing  a  ball  at  his  son  in  in- 
fancy, to  prepare  him  to  be  an  athlete,  thus  practically  sure  of  a 
college  education. 


TEACHING  26s 

Schools  Should   Provide   Mental  Preparedness. — 

The  schools  should  render  every  student  capable 
of  filling  some  place  worthily  in  the  industries.  The 
longer  the  student  remains  in  school,  the  higher  the 
position  for  which  he  should  be  prepared.  The 
amount  and  nature  of  the  training  in  the  schools 
depends  largely  on  the  industrial  work  to  be  done, 
and  will  be  possible  of  more  accurate  estimation  con- 
stantly, as  Scientific  Management  standardizes  work 
and  shows  what  the  worker  must  be  to  be  most 
efficient. 

Vocational  Guidance  Must  Provide  Direction. — 
As  made  most  clear  in  Mr.  Meyer  Bloomfield's  book, 
"  Vocational  Guidance,"  ®^  bureaus  of  competent 
directors  stand  ready  to  help  the  youth  find  that  line 
of  activity  which  he  can  follow  best  and  with  great- 
est satisfaction  to  himself.  At  present,  such  bureaus 
are  seriously  handicapped  by  the  fact  that  little  data 
of  the  industries  are  at  hand,  but  this  lack  the 
bureaus  are  rapidly  supplying  by  gathering  such 
data  as  are  available.  Most  valuable  data  will  not 
be  available  until  Scientific  Management  has  been 
introduced  into  all  lines. 

Progress  Demands  Cooperation. —  Progress  here, 
as  everywhere,  demands  cooperation.^*  The  three 
sets  of  educators, —  the  teachers  in  the  school,  in 
the  Vocational  Guidance  Bureaus,  and  in  Scientific 
Management,   must   recognize   their   common  work, 

63  Meyer  Bloomfield,  The  Vocational  Guidance  of  Youth,  Hough- 
ton Mifflin  &  Co. 

8*  A.  Pimloche,  Pestalossi  and  the  Foundation  of  the  Modern 
Elementary  School,  p.  139. 


266  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

and  must  cooperate  to  do  it.  There  is  absolutely 
no  cause  for  conflict  between  the  three;  their  fields 
are  distinct,  but  supplementary.  Vocational  Guid- 
ance is  the  intermediary  between  the  other  two. 

SUMMARY 

Results  to  the  Work. —  Under  the  teaching  of  Tra- 
ditional Management,  the  learner  may  or  may  not 
improve  the  quantity  and  quality  of  his  work.  This 
depends  almost  entirely  on  the  particular  teacher 
whom  the  learner  happens  to  have.  There  is  no 
standard  improvement  to  the  work. 

Under  the  teaching  of  Transitory  Management,  the 
work  gains  in  quantity  as  the  methods  become  stand- 
ardized, and  quality  is  maintained  or  improved. 

Under  the  teaching  of  Scientific  Management, 
work,  the  quantity  of  work,  increases  enormously 
through  the  use  of  standards  of  all  kinds;  quantity 
is  oftentimes  tripled. 

Under  the  teaching  of  Scientific  Management, 
when  the  schools  and  Vocational  Guidance  move- 
ment cooperate,  high  output  of  required  quality  will 
be  obtained  at  a  far  earKer  stage  of  the  worker's 
industrial  life  than  is  now  possible,  even  under  Scien- 
tific Management. 

Results  to  the  Worker. —  Under  Traditional  Man- 
agement, the  worker  gains  a  knowledge  of"  how  his 
work  can  be  done,  but  the  method  by  which  he  is 
taught  is  seldom,  of  itself,  helpful  to  him.  Not  be- 
ing sure  that  he  has  learned  the  best  way  to  do  his 
work,  he  gains  no  method  of  attack.     The  result  of 


TEACHING  267 

the  teaching  is  a  habit  of  doing  work  which  is  good, 
or  bad,  as  chance  may  direct. 

Under  Transitory  Management,  with  the  use  of 
Systems  as  teachers,  the  worker  gains  a  better 
method  of  attack,  as  he  knows  the  reason  why  the 
prescribed  method  is  prescribed.  He  begins  to  ap- 
preciate the  possibilities  and  benefits  of  standardized 
teaching. 

The  method  laid  down  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is  devised  to  further  the  forming  of  an  ac- 
curate accumulation  of  concepts,  which  results  in  a 
proper  method  of  attack.  The  method  of  instruc- 
tion under  Scientific  Management  is  devised  to  fur- 
nish two  things: 

1.  A  collection  of  knowledge  relating  in  its  en- 
tirety to  the  future  work  of  the  learner. 

2.  A  definite  procedure,  that  will  enable  the  learner 
to  apply  the  same  process  to  acquiring  knowledge 
of  other  subjects  in  the  most  economical  and  efficient 
way. 

It  teaches  the  learner  to  be  observant  of  details, 
which  is  the  surest  method  for  further  development 
of  general  truths  and  concepts. 

The  method  of  attack  of  the  methods  provided 
for  in  Scientific  Management  results,  naturally,  in 
a  comparison  of  true  data.  This  is  the  most  efficient 
method  of  causing  the  learner  to  think  for  himself. 

Processes  differing  but  little,  apparently,  give 
vastly  different  results,  and  the  trained  habits  of  ob- 
servation quickly  analyze  and  determine  wherein  the 
one  process  is  more  efficient  than  the  other. 


268  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

This  result  is,  of  course,  the  one  most  desired  for 
causing  quick  and  intelligent  learning. 

The  most  valuable  education  is  that  which  enables 
the  learner  to  make  correct  judgments.  The  teach- 
ing under  Scientific  Management  leads  to  the  acquisi- 
tion of  such  judgment,  plus  an  all-around  sense  train- 
ing, a  training  in  habits  of  work,  and  a  progressive 
development. 

A  partial  topic  list  of  the  results  may  make  more 
clear  their  importance. 

1.  Worker  better  trained  for  all  work. 

2.  Habits  of  correct  thinking  instilled. 

3.  Preparedness  provided  for. 

4.  Productive   and   repetitive  powers  increased. 

5.  Sense  powers  increased. 

6.  Habits  of  proper  reaction  established. 

7.  "  Guided  original  work  "  established. 

8.  System  of  waste  elimination  provided. 

9.  Method  of  attack  taught. 

10.  Brain  fully  developed. 

11.  "Standard  response"  developed. 

12.  Opportunities    and    demands    for    "  thinking " 
provided. 

13.  Self-reliance  developed. 

14.  Love  of  truth  fostered. 

15.  Moral  sentiment  developed. 

16.  Resultant  happiness  of  worker. 

Results  To  Be  Expected  in  the  Future. —  When  the 
schools,  vocational  guidance  and  teaching  under 
Scientific  Management  cooperate,  the  worker  will 
not  only  receive  the  benefits  now  obtained  from 
Scientific  Management,  but  many  more.     There  will 


TEACHING  269 

be  nothing-  to  unlearn,  and  each  thing  that  is  learned 
will  be  taught  by  those  best  fitted  to  teach  it.  The 
collection  of  vocational  guidance  data  will  begin 
with  a  child  at  birth,  and  a  record  of  his  inheritance 
will  be  kept.  This  will  be  added  to  as  he  is  educated, 
and  as  various  traits  and  tendencies  appear.  From 
this  scientifically  derived  record  will  accrue  such  data 
as  will  assist  in  making  clear  exactly  in  what  place  the 
worker  will  be  most  efficient,  and  in  what  sphere  he 
will  be  able  to  be  most  helpful  to  the  world,  as  well 
as  to  himself.  All  early  training  will  be  planned  to 
make  the  youth  adept  with  his  muscles,  and  alert, 
with  a  mind  so  trained  that  related  knowledge  is 
easily  acquired. 

When  the  vocation  for  which  he  is  naturally  best 
fitted  becomes  apparent,  as  it  must  from  the  study 
of  the  development  of  the  youth  and  his  desires,  the 
school  will  know,  and  can  give  exactly,  that  train- 
ing that  is  necessary  for  the  vocation.  It  can  also 
supplement  his  limitations  intelligently,  in  case  he 
decides  to  follow  a  vocation  for  which  he  is  naturally 
handicapped. 

This  will  bring  to  the  industry  learners  prepared 
to  be  taught  those  things  that  characterize  the  in- 
dustry, the  "  tricks  of  the  trade,"  and  the  "  secrets 
of  the  craft,"  now  become  standard,  and  free  to  all. 
Such  teaching  Scientific  Management  is  prepared 
to  give.  The  results  of  such  teaching  of  Scientific 
Management  will  be  (a  worker  prepared  in  a  short 
time  to  fill  efficiently  a  position  which  will  allow  of 
promotion  to  the  limit  of  his  possibilities. 

The  result  of  such  teaching  will  be  truly  educated 


270  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

workers,  equipped  to  work,  and  to  live,^^  and  to  share 
the  world's  permanent  satisfactions. 

The  effect  of  such  education  on  industrial  peace 
must  not  be  underestimated.  With  education,  in- 
cluding in  education  learning  and  culture, —  prej- 
udice will  disappear.  The  fact  that  all  men,  those 
going  into  industries  and  those  not,  will  be  taught 
alike  to  be  finger  wise  as  well  as  book  wise,  up  to  the 
time  of  entering  the  industries,  will  lead  to  a  better 
understanding  of  each  other  all  through  life. 

The  entire  bearing  of  Scientific  Management  on 
industrial  peace  cannot  be  here  fully  discussed.  We 
must  note  here  the  strong  effect  that  teaching  un- 
der Scientific  Management  will  ultimately  have  on 
doing  away  with  industrial  warfare, —  the  great  war- 
fare of  ignorance,  where  neither  side  understands 
the  other,  and  where  each  side  should  realize  that 
large  immediate  sacrifices  should  be  made  if  neces- 
sary, that  there  may  be  obtained  the  great  permanent 
benefit  and  savings  that  can  be  obtained  only  by 
means  of  the  heartiest  cooperation. 

65  Friedrich  Froebel,  Education  of  Man,  "  To  secure  for  this 
ability  skill  and  directness,  to  lift  it  into  full  consciousness,  to  give 
it  insight  and  clearness,  and  to  exalt  it  into  a  life  of  creative  free- 
dom, is  the  business  of  the  subsequent  life  of  man  in  successive 
stages  of  development  and  cultivation." 


CHAPTER  IX 

INCENTIVES 

Definition  o£  Incentive. —  An  "  incentive  "  is  de- 
fined by  the  Century  Dictionary  as  "  that  which 
moves  the  mind  or  stirs  the  passions;  that  which 
incites  or  tends  to  incite  to  action;  motive,  spur." 
Synonyms  — "  impulse,  _  stimulus,  incitement,  en- 
couragement, goad," 

Importance  of  the  Incentive. —  The  part  that  the 
incentive  plays  in  the  doing  of  all  work  is  enormous. 
This  is  true  in  learning,  and  also  in  the  performance 
of  work  which  is  the  result  of  this  learning:  manual 
work  and  mental  work  as  well.  The  business  man 
finishing  his  work  early  that  he  may  go  to  the  base- 
ball game;  the  boy  at  school  rushing  through  his 
arithmetic  that  he  may  not  be  kept  after  school; 
the  piece-worker,  the  amount  of  whose  day's  pay  de- 
pends upon  the  quantity  and  quality  he  can  produce; 
the  student  of  a  foreign  language  preparing  for  a 
trip  abroad, —  these  all  illustrate  the  importance  of 
the  incentive  as  an  element  in  the  amount  which  is 
to  be  accomplished. 

Two  Kinds  of  Incentives. —  The  incentive  may  be 
of  two  kinds:  it  may  be  first  of  all,  a  return,  definite 
or  indefinite,  which  is  to  be  received  when  a  certain 

271 


272  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

portion  of  the.  work  is  done,  or  it  may  be  an  incentive 
due  to  the  working  conditions  themselves.  The  latter 
case  is  exemplified  where  two  people  are  engaged  in 
the  same  sort  of  work  and  start  in  to  race  one  another 
to  see  who  can  accomplish  the  most,  who  can  finish 
the  fixed  amount  in  the  shortest  space  of  time,  or  who 
can  produce  the  best  quality.  The  incentive  may  be 
in  the  form  of  some  definite  aim  or  goal  which  is  un- 
derstood by  the  worker  himself,  or  it  may  be  in  some 
natural  instinct  which  is  roused  by  the  work,  either 
consciously  to  the  worker,  or  consciously  to  the  man 
who  is  assigning  the  work,  or  consciously  to  both,  or 
consciously  to  neither  one.  In  any  of  these  cases 
it  is  a  natural  instinct  that  is  being  appealed  to  and 
that  induces  the  man  to  do  more  work,  whether  he 
sees  any  material  reward  for  that  work  or  not. 

Definitions  of  Two  T5^es. —  We  may  call  the  in- 
centive which  utilizes  the  natural  instinct,  "  direct 
incentive,"  and  the  incentive  which  utilizes  these 
secondarily,  through  some  set  reward  or  punishment, 
"  indirect  incentive."  This,  at  first  sight,  may  seem 
a  contradictory  use  of  terms  —  it  may  seem  that  the 
reward  would  be  the  most  direct  of  incentives;  yet 
a  moment's  thought  will  cause  one  to  realize  that  all 
the  reward  can  possibly  do  is  to  arouse  in  the  in- 
dividual a  natural  instinct  which  will  lead  him  to  in- 
crease his  work. 

Indirect  Incentives  Include  Two  Classes. —  We 
will  discuss  the  indirect  incentives  first  as,  contrary 
to  the  usual  use  of  the  word  "  indirect,"  they  are 
most  easy  to  estimate  and  to  describe.  They  divide 
themselves  into  two  classes,  reward  and  punishment. 


INCENTIVES  273 

Definition  of  Reward. —  Reward  is  defined  by  the 
Century  Dictionary  as  — "  return,  recompense,  the 
fruit  of  one's  labor  or  works ;  profit,"  with  synonyms, 
"  pay,  compensation,  remuneration,  requital  and  re- 
tribution." Note  particularly  the  word  "  retribu- 
tion," for  it  is  this  aspect  of  reward,  that  is,  the 
just  outcome  of  one's  act,  that  makes  the  reward 
justly  include  punishment.  The  word  "  reward  "  ex- 
actly expresses  what  management  would  wish  to  be 
understood  by  the  incentive  that  it  gives  its  men  to 
increase  their  work. 

Definition  of  Punishment. —  The  word  "  punish- 
ment "  is  defined  as  — "  pain,  suffering,  loss,  confine- 
ment, or  other  penalty  inflicted  on  a  person  for  a 
crime  or  offense  by  the  authority  to  which  the  of- 
fender is  subject,"  with  synonyms,  "  chastisement, 
correction,  discipline." 

The  word  punishment,  as  will  be  noted  later,  is 
most  unfortunate  when  applied  to  what  Scientific 
Management  would  mean  by  a  penalty,  though  this 
word  also  is  unfortunate ;  but,  in  the  first  place,  there 
is  no  better  word  to  cover  the  general  meaning;  and 
in  the  second  place,  the  idea  of  pain  and  suffering, 
which  Scientific  Management  aims  to  and  does  elim- 
inate, is  present  in  some  of  the  older  forms  of  man- 
agement. Therefore  the  word  punishment  must 
stand. 

Rewards  and  Punishments  Result  in  Action. — 
There  can  be  no  doubt  that  a  reward  is  an  incentive. 
There  may  well  be  doubt  as  to  whether  a  punish- 
ment is  an  incentive  to  action  or  not.  This,  how- 
ever, is  only  at  first  glance,  and  the  whole  thing  rests 


,574  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

on  the  meaning  of  the  word  "  action."  To  be  active 
is  certainly  the  opposite  of  being  at  rest.  This  be- 
ing true,  punishment  is  just  as  surely  an  incentive  to 
action  as  is  reward. '  The  man  who  is  punished  in 
every  case  will  be  led  to  some  sort  of  action. 
Whether  this  really  results  in  an  increase  of  output 
or  not  simply  determines  whether  the  punishment  is 
a  scientifically  prescribed  punishment  or  not.  If  the 
punishment  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  output  ceases 
because  of  it,  or  that  it  incites  the  man  punished 
against  the  general  good,  then  it  does  not  in  any  wise 
cease  to  be  an  active  thing,  but  it  is  simply  a  wrong, 
and  unscientifically  assigned  punishment,  that  acts  in 
a  detrimental  way. 

Soldiering  Alone  Cuts  Down  Activity. —  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  that  the  greatest  cause  for  cutting 
down  output  is  related  more  closely  to  a  reward  than 
a  punishment.  Under  such  managements  as  provide 
no  adequate  reward  for  all,  and  no  adequate  assur- 
ance that  all  can  receive  extra  rewards  permanently 
without  a  cut  in  the  rate,  it  may  be  advisable,  for 
the  worker's  best  interests,  to  limit  output  in  order 
to  keep  the  wages,  or  reward,  up,  and  soldiering  re- 
sults. The  evils  of  soldiering  will  be  discussed  more 
at  length  under  the  "  Systems  of  Pay."  It  is  plain, 
however,  here  that  soldiering  is  the  result  of  a  cut- 
ting down  of  action,  and  it  is  self-evident  that 
anything  which  cuts  down  action  is  harmful,  not 
only  to  the  individual  himself,  but  to  society  at 
large. 

Nature  of  Rewards  and  Punishments. —  Under  all 
types  of  management,  the  principal  rewards  consist 


INCENTIVES  275 

of  promotion  and  pay,  pay  being  a  broad  word  used 
here  to  include  regular  wages,  a  bonus,  shorter  hours, 
other  forms  of  remuneration  or  recompense;  any- 
thing which  can  be  given  to  the  man  who  does  the 
work  to  benefit  him  and  increase  his  desire  to  con- 
tinue doing  the  work.  Punishments  may  be  nega- 
tive, that  is,  they  may  simply  take  the  form  of  no 
reward;  or  they  may  be  positive,  that  is,  they  may 
include  fines,  discharge,  assignment  to  less  re- 
munerative or  less  desirable  work,  or  any  other  thing 
which  can  be  given  to  the  man  to  show  him  that 
he  has  not  done  what  is  expected  of  him  and,  in 
theory  at  least,  to  lead  him  to  do  better. 

Nature  of  Direct  Incentives. —  Direct  incentives  will 
be  such  native  reaction  as  ambition,  pride  and  pug- 
nacity; will  be  love  of  racing,  love  of  play;  love  of 
personal  recognition;  will  be  the  outcome  of  self- 
confidence  and  interest,  and  so  on. 

The  Reward  Under  Traditional  Management  Un- 
standardized. —  As  with  all  other  discussions  of  any 
part  or  form  of  Traditional  Management,  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  incentive  under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment is  vague  from  the  very  nature  of  the  subject. 
"  Traditional "  stands  for  vagueness  and  for  varia- 
tion, for  the  lack  of  standardization,  for  the  lack  of 
definiteness  in  knowledge,  in  process,  in  results. 
The  rewards  under  Traditional  Management,  as  un- 
der all  types  of  management,  are  promotion  and  pay. 
It  must  be  an  almost  unthinkably  poor  system  of 
management,  even  under  Traditional  Management, 
which  did  not  attempt  to  provide  for  some  sort  of 
promotion  of  the  man  who  did  the  most  and  best 


276  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

work;  but  the  lack  of  standardization  of  conditions, 
of  instructions,  of  the  work  itself,  and  of  reward, 
makes  it  almost  impossible  not  only  to  give  the  re- 
ward, but  even  to  determine  who  deserves  the  re- 
ward. Under  Traditional  Management,  the  reward 
need  not  be  positive,  that  is,  it  might  simply  consist 
in  the  negation  of  some  previously  existing  disadvan- 
tage. It  need  not  be  predetermined.  It  might  be 
nothing  definite.  It  might  not  be  so  set  ahead  that 
the  man  might  look  forward  to  it.  In  other  words 
it  might  simply  be  the  outcome  of  the  good,  and  in 
no  wise  the  incentive  for  the  good.  It  need  not 
necessarily  be  personal.  It  could  be  shared  with  a 
group,  or  gang,  and  lose  all  feeling  of  personality. 
It  need  not  be  a  fixed  reward  or  a  fixed  performance ; 
in  fact,  if  the  management  were  Traditional  it  would 
be  almost  impossible  that  it  would  be  a  fixed  re- 
ward. It  might  not  be  an  assured  reward,  and  in 
most  cases  it  was  not  a  prompt  reward.  These  fixed 
adjectives  describe  the  reward  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment —  positive,  predetermined,  personal,  fixed,  as- 
sured and  prompt.  A  few  of  these  might  apply,  or 
none  might  apply  to  the  reward  under  Traditional 
Management. 

Reward  a  Prize  Won  by  One  Only. —  If  this  re- 
ward, whether  promotion  or  pay,  was  given  to  some- 
one under  Traditional  Management,  this  usually 
meant  that  others  thereby  lost  it;  it  was  in  the  nature 
of  a  prize  which  one  only  could  attain,  and  which 
the  others,  therefore,  would  lose,  and  such  a  lost 
prize  is,  to  the  average  man,  for  the  time  at  least,  a 
dampener  on  action.     The  rewarding  of  the  winner, 


INCENTIVES  377 

to  the  loss  of  all  of  the  losers,  has  been  met  by  the 
workmen  getting  together  secretly,  and  selecting  the 
winners  for  a  week  or  more  ahead,  thus  getting  the 
same  reward  out  of  the  employer  without  the  extra 
effort. 

Punishment  Under  Traditional  Management 
Wrong  in  Theory. —  The  punishment,  under  Tradi- 
tional Management,  was  usually  much  more  than 
negative  punishment;  that  is  to  say,  the  man  who 
was  punished  usually  received  much  more  than  sim- 
ply the  negative  return  of  getting  no  reward.  The 
days  of  bodily  punishment  have  long  passed,  yet  the 
account  of  the  beatings  given  to  the  galley  slaves 
and  to  other  workers  in  the  past  are  too  vividly  de- 
scribed in  authentic  accounts  to  be  lost  from  memory. 
To-day,  under  Traditional  Management,  punish- 
ment consists  of 

1.  fines,  which  are  usually  simply  a  cutting  down 
of  wages,  the  part  deducted  remaining  with  the  com- 
pany, 

2.  discharge,  or 

3.  assignment  to  less  pleasant  or  less  desirable 
work. 

This  assignment  is  done  on  an  unscientific  basis,  the 
man  being  simply  put  at  something  which  he  dis- 
likes, with  no  regard  as  to  whether  his  eflEiciency  at 
that  particular  work  will  be  high  or  not. 

Results  Are  Unfortunate. —  The  punishment,  un- 
der Traditional  Management,  is  usually  meted  out 
by  the  foreman,  simply  as  one  of  his  many  duties. 
He  is  apt  to  be  so  personally  interested,  and  per- 
haps involved,  in  the  case  that  his  punishment  will 


278  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

satisfy  some  wrong  notions,  impulse  of  anger,  hate, 
or  envy  in  him,  and  will  arouse  a  feeling  of  shame  or 
wounded  pride,  or  unappreciation,  in  the  man  to 
whom  punishment  is  awarded. 

Direct  Incentives  Not  Scientifically  Utilized. — 
As  for  what  we  have  called  direct  incentive,  the  love 
of  racing  was  often  used  under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment through  Athletic  Contests,  the  faults  in  these 
being  that  the  men  were  not  properly  studied,  so 
that  they  could  be  properly  assigned  and  grouped; 
care  was  not  always  exercised  that  hate  should  not 
be  the  result  of  the  contest;  the  contest  was  not  al- 
ways conducted  according  to  the  rules  of  clean  sport ; 
the  men  slighted  quality  in  hastening  the  work,  and 
the  results  of  the  athletic  contests  were  not  so  written 
down  as  to  be  thereafter  utilized.  Love  of  play  may 
have  been  developed  unconsciously,  but  was  cer- 
tainly not  often  studied.  Love  of  personal  recogni- 
tion was  probably  often  utilized,  but  in  no  scientific 
way.  Neither  was  there  anything  in  Traditional 
Management  to  develop  self-confidence,  or  to  arouse 
and  maintain  interest  in  any  set  fashion.  Naturally, 
if  the  man  were  in  a  work  which  he  particularly 
liked,  which  under  Traditional  Management  was  a 
matter  of  luck,  he  would  be  more  or  less  interested 
in  it,  but  there  was  no  scientific  way  of  arousing  or 
holding  his  interest.  Under  Traditional  Manage- 
ment, a  man  might  take  pride  in  his  work,  as  did 
many  of  the  old  bricklayers  and  masons,  who  would 
set  themselves  apart  after  hours  if  necessary,  lock 
themselves  in,  and  cut  bricks  for  a  complicated  arch 
or  fancy  pattern,  but  such  pride  was  in  no  way  fos- 


INCENTIVES  279 

tered  through  the  efforts  of  the  management.  Pug- 
nacity was  aroused,  but  it  might  have  an  evil  effect 
as  v^ell  as  a  good,  so  far  as  the  management  had 
any  control.  Ambition,  in  the  same  way,  might  be 
stimulated,  and  might  not.  There  is  absolutely  noth- 
ing under  Traditional  Management  to  prevent  a  man 
being  ambitious,  gratifying  his  pride,  and  gratifying 
his  pugnacity  in  a  right  way,  and  at  the  same  time 
being  interested  in  his  work,  but  there  was  nothing 
under  Traditional  Management  which  provided  for 
definite  and  exact  methods  for  encouraging  these 
good  qualities,  seeing  that  they  developed  in  a  proper 
channel,  and  scientifically  utilizing  the  outcome  again 
and  again. 

Pay  for  Performance  Provided  for  by  Transitory 
Management. —  Under  Transitory  Management,  as 
soon  as  practicable,  one  bonus  is  paid  for  doing  work 
according  to  the  method  prescribed.  As  standard- 
ization takes  place,  the  second  bonus  for  completing 
the  task  in  the  time  set  can  be  paid.  As  each  ele- 
ment of  Scientific  Management  is  introduced,  incen- 
tives become  more  apparent,  more  powerful,  and 
more  assured. 

Direct  Incentives  More  Skillfully  Used. —  With  the 
separating  of  output,  and  recording  of  output  sep- 
arately, love  of  personal  recognition  grew,  self-con- 
fidence grew,  interest  in  one's  work  grew.  The 
Athletic  Contest  is  so  conducted  that  love  of  speed, 
love  of  play,  and  love  of  competition  are  encouraged, 
the  worker  constantly  feeling  that  he  can  indulge 
in  these,  as  he  is  assured  of  "  fair  play." 

Incentives  Under  Scientific  Management  Construe- 


28o  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

tive. —  It  is  most  important,  psychologically  and 
ethically,  that  it  be  understood  that  Scientific  Man- 
agement is  not  in  any  sense  a  destructive  power. 
That  only  is  eliminated  that  is  harmful,  or  wasteful, 
or  futile ;  everything  that  is  good  is  conserved,  and  is 
utilized  as  much  as  it  has  ever  been  before,  often 
much  more  than  it  has  ever  been  utilized.  The  con- 
structive force,  under  Scientific  Management,  is  one 
of  its  great  life  principles.  This  is  brought  out  very 
plainly  in  considering  incentives  under  Scientific 
Management.  With  the  scientifically  determined 
wage,  and  the  more  direct  and  more  sure  plan  of 
promotion,  comes  no  discard  of  the  well-grounded 
incentives  of  older  types  of  management.  The  value 
of  a  fine  personality  in  all  who  are  to  be  imitated  is 
not  forgotten;  the  importance  of  using  all  natural 
stimuli  to  healthful  activity  is  appreciated.  Scien- 
tific Management  uses  all  these,  in  so  far  as  they  can 
be  used  to  the  best  outcome  for  workers  and  work, 
and  supplements  them  by  such  scientifically  derived 
additions  as  could  never  have  been  derived  under 
the  older  types. 

Characteristics  of  the  Reward. —  Rewards,   under 
Scientific  Management  are  — 

(a)  positive;  that  is  to  say,  the  reward  must  be 
a  definite,  positive  gain  to  the  man,  and  not 
simply  a  taking  away  of  some  thing  which 
may  have  been  a  drawback. 

(b)  predetermined;  that  is  to  say,  before  the 
man  begins  to  work  it  must  be  determined 
exactly  what  reward  he  is  to  get  for  doing 
the  work. 


INCENTIVES  281 

(c)  personal;  that  is,  individual,  a  reward  for 
that  particular  man  for  that  particular 
work, 

(d)  fixed,  unchanged.  He  must  get  exactly 
what  it  has  been  determined  beforehand 
that  he  shall  get. 

(e)  assured;  that  is  to  say,  there  must  be  pro- 
vision made  for  this  reward  before  the  man 
begins  to  work,  so  that  he  may  be  positive 
that  he  will  get  the  reward  if  he  does  the 
work.  The  record  of  the  organization  must 
be  that  rewards  have  always  been  paid  in 
the  past,  therefore  probably  will  be  in  the 
future. 

(f)  the  reward  must  be  prompt;  that  is  to  say, 
as  soon  as  the  work  has  been  done,  the  man 
must  get  the  reward.  This  promptness  ap- 
plies to  the  announcement  of  the  reward; 
that  is  to  say,  the  man  must  know  at  once 
that  he  has  gotten  the  reward,  and  also  to 
the  receipt  of  the  reward  by  the  man. 

Positive  Reward  Arouses  Interest  and  Holds  At- 
tention.—  The  benefit  of  the  positive  reward  is  that 
it  arouses  and  holds  attention.  A  fine  example  of  a 
reward  that  is  not  positive  is  that  type  of  "  welfare 
work "  which  consists  of  simply  providing  the 
worker  with  such  surroundings  as  will  enable  him  to 
work  decently  and  without  actual  discomfort.  The 
worker,  naturally,  feels  that  such  surroundings  are 
his  right,  and  in  no  sense  a  reward  and  incentive  to 
added  activity.  The  reward  must  actually  offer  to 
the  worker  something  which  he  has  a  right  to  ex- 


282  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

pect  only  if  he  earns  it;  something  which  will  be  a 
positive  addition  to  his  life. 

Predetermined  Reward  Concentrates  Attention. — 

The  predetermined  reward  allows  both  manager  and 
man  to  concentrate  their  minds  upon  the  work. 
There  is  no  shifting  of  the  attention,  while  the 
worker  wonders  what  the  reward  that  he  is  to  re- 
ceive will  be.  It  is  also  a  strong  factor  for  industrial 
peace,  and  for  all  the  extra  activities  which  will  come 
when  industrial  conditions  are  peaceful. 

Personal  Reward  Conserves  Individuality. —  The 
personal  reward  is  a  strong  incentive  toward  initia- 
tive, towards  the  desire  to  make  the  most  of  one's 
individuality.  It  is  an  aid  toward  the  feeling  of  per- 
sonal recognition.  From  this  personal  reward  come 
all  the  benefits  which  have  been  considered  under  in- 
dividuality.^ 

Fixed  Reward  Eliminates  Waste  Time. —  The  fact 
that  the  reward  is  fixed  is  a  great  eliminater  of  waste 
to  the  man  and  to  the  manager  both.  Not  only  does 
the  man  concentrate  better  under  the  fixed  reward, 
but  the  reward,  being  fixed,  need  not  be  determined 
anew,  over  and  over  again;  that  is  to  say,  every  time 
that  that  kind  of  work  is  done,  simultaneous  with  the 
arising  of  the  work  comes  the  reward  that  is  to  be 
paid  for  it.  All  the  time  that  would  be  given  to  de- 
termining the  reward,  satisfying  the  men  and  arguing 
the  case,  is  saved  and  utilized. 

Assured  Reward  Aids  Concentration. —  The  as- 
sured reward  leads  to  concentration, —  even  perhaps 

1 W.  P.  Gillette,  Cost  Analysis  Engineering,  p.  3, 


INCENTIVES  383 

more  so  than  the  fact  that  the  reward  is  determined. 
In  case  the  man  was  not  sure  that  he  would  get  the 
reward  in  the  end,  he  would  naturally  spend  a  great 
deal  of  time  wondering  whether  he  would  or  not. 
Moreover,  no  immediate  good  fortune  counts  for 
much  as  an  incentive  if  there  is  a  prospect  of  bad  luck 
following  in  the  immediate  future. 

Need  for  Promptness  Varies. —  The  need  for 
promptness  of  the  reward  varies.  If  the  reward  is  to 
be  given  to  a  man  of  an  elementary  type  of  mind,  the 
reward  must  be  immediately  announced  and  must  be 
actually  given  very  promptly,  as  it  is  impossible  for 
anyone  of  such  a  type  of  intellect  to  look  forward 
very  far.^  A  man  of  a  high  type  of  intellectual  de- 
velopment is  able  to  wait  a  longer  time  for  his  re- 
ward, and  the  element  of  promptness,  while  acting 
somewhat  as  an  incentive,  is  not  so  necessary. 

Under  Scientific  Management,  with  the  ordinary 
type  of  worker  on  manual  work,  it  has  been  found 
most  satisfactory  to  pay  the  reward  every  day,  or 
at  the  end  of  the  week,  and  to  announce  the  score  of 
output  as  often  as  every  hour.  This  not  only  sat- 
isfies the  longing  of  the  normal  mind  to  know  exactly 
where  it  stands,  but  also  lends  a  fresh  impetus  to 
repeat  the  high  record.  There  is  also,  through  the 
prompt  reward,  the  elimination  of  time  wasted  in 
wondering  what  the  result  will  be,  and  in  allaying 
suspense.  Suspense  is  not  a  stimulus  to  great  ac- 
tivity, as  anyone  who  has  waited  for  the  result  of  a 
doubtful  examination  can  testify,  it  being  almost  im- 

2  F.  W.  Taylor,  Paper  647,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  para,  33,  para.  59. 


284  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

possible  to  concentrate  the  mind  on  any  other  work 
until  one  knows  whether  the  work  which  has  been 
done  has  been  completed  satisfactorily  or  not. 

Promptness  Always  an  Added  Incentive. —  There 
are  many  kinds  of  life  work  and  modes  of  living  so 
terrible  as  to  make  one  shudder  at  the  thoughts  of 
the  certain  sickness,  death,  or  disaster  that  are  al- 
most absolutely  sure  to  follow  such  a  vocation.  Men 
continue  to  work  for  those  wages  that  lead  posi- 
tively to  certain  death,  because  of  the  immediateness 
of  the  sufficient  wages,  or  reward.  This  takes  their 
attention  from  their  ultimate  end.  Much  more 
money  would  be  required  if  payment  were  postponed, 
say,  five  years  after  the  act,  to  obtain  the  services  of 
the  air-man,  or  the  worker  subject  to  the  poisoning 
of  some  branches  of  the  lead  and  mercury  industries. 

If  the  prompt  reward  is  incentive  enough  to  make 
men  forget  danger  and  threatened  death,  how  much 
more  efficient  is  it  in  increasing  output  where  there 
is  no  such  danger. 

Immediate  Reward  Not  Always  Preferable. — 
There  are  cases  where  the  prompt  reward  is  not  to 
be  preferred,  because  the  delayed  reward  will  be 
greater,  or  will  be  available  to  more  people  Such 
is  the  case  with  the  reward  that  comes  from  unre- 
stricted output. 

For  example, —  the  immediacy  of  the  temporarily 
increased  reward  caused  by  restricting  output  has 
often  led  the  combinations  of  workmg  men  to  such 
restriction,  with  an  ultimate  loss  of  reward  to  worker, 
to  employer,  and  to  the  consumer. 

Rewards  Possible  of  Attainment  by  All. —  Every 


INCENTIVES  28s 

man  working  under  Scientific  Management  has  a 
chance  to  win  a  reward.  This  means  not  only  that  the 
man  has  a  "  square  deal,"  for  the  man  may  have  a 
square  deal  under  Traditional  Management  in  that  he 
may  have  a  fair  chance  to  try  for  all  existing  rewards. 
There  is  more  than  this  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment. By  the  very  nature  of  the  plan  itself,  the  re- 
wards are  possible  of  achievement  by  all;  any  one 
man,  by  winning,  in  no  way  diminishes  the  chances 
of  the  others. 

Rewards  of  Management  Resemble  Rewards  of 
Workers. —  So  far  the  emphasis,  in  the  discussion  of 
reward,  has  been  on  the  reward  as  given  to  the 
worker,  and  his  feeling  toward  it.  The  reward  to  the 
management  is  just  as  sure.  It  lies  in  the  increased 
output  and  therefore  the  possibility  of  lower  costs 
and  of  greater  financial  gain.  It  is  as  positive;  it 
is  as  predetermined,  because  before  the  reward  to  the 
men  is  fixed  the  management  realizes  what  propor- 
tion that  reward  will  bear  to  the  entire  undertaking, 
and  exactly  what  profits  can  be  obtained.  It  is  a 
fundamental  of  Scientific  Management  that  the  man- 
agement shall  be  able  to  prophesy  the  outputs  ahead. 
It  will  certainly  be  as  personal,  if  the  management 
side  is  as  thoroughly  systematized  as  is  the  managed; 
it  will  be  as  fixed  and  as  assured,  and  it  certainly  is 
as  prompt,  as  the  cost  records  can  be  arranged  to 
come  to  the  management  every  day,  if  that  is  desired. 

Results  of  Such  Rewards. —  There  are  three  other 
advantages  to  management  which  might  well  be 
added  here.  First,  that  a  reward  such  as  this  at- 
tracts the  best  men  to  the  work;  second,  that  the 


286  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

reward,  and  the  stability  of  it,  indicates  the  stability 
of  the  entire  institution,  and  thus  raises  its  standing 
in  the  eyes  of  the  community  as  well  as  in  its  own 
eyes;  and  third,  that  it  leads  the  entire  organization, 
both  managed  and  managing,  to  look  favorably  at  all 
standardization.  The  standardized  reward  is  sure  to 
be  attractive  to  all  members.  As  soon  as  it  is 
realized  that  the  reason  that  it  is  attractive  is  because 
it  is  standardised^  the  entire  subject  of  standardiza- 
tion rises  in  the  estimation  of  every  one,  and  the  in- 
troduction of  standards  can  be  carried  on  more 
rapidly,  and  with  greater  success. 

Rewards  Divided  into  Promotion  and  Pay. —  Re- 
wards may  be  divided  into  two  kinds;  first,  promo- 
tion and,  second,  pay.  Under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment promotion  is  assured  for  every  man  and,  as 
has  been  said,  this  promotion  does  not  thereby  hold 
back  others  from  having  the  same  sort  of  promotion. 
There  is  an  ample  place,  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment, for  every  man  to  advance.^  Not  only  is  the 
promotion  sure,  thus  giving  the  man  absolute  as- 
surance that  he  will  advance  as  his  work  is  satis- 
factory, but  it  is  also  gradual.*  The  promotion  must 
be  by  degrees,  otherwise  the  workers  may  get  dis- 
couraged, from  finding  their  promotion  has  come 
faster  than  has  their  ability  to  achieve,  and  the  lack 
of  attention,  due  to  being  discouraged,  may  be  con- 
tagious. It  is,  therefore,  of  vital  importance  that  the 
worker  be  properly  selected,  in  order  that,  in  his  ad- 
vancement and  promotion,  he  shall  be  able  to  achieve 

3  Hugo  Diemer,  Factory  Organization  and  Administration,  p.  S« 
*  James  M.  Dodge,  Paper  H15,  A.  S.  M.  E.,  p.  723. 


INCENTIVES  a87 

his  task  after  having  been  put  at  the  new  work.  He 
must  be  advanced  and  promoted  in  a  definite  line  of 
gradual  development,  in  accordance  with  a  fully  con- 
ceived plan.  This  should  be  worked  out  and  set 
down  in  writing  as  a  definite  plan,  similar  to  the  plan 
on  the  instruction  card  of  one  of  his  tasks. 

Promotion  May  Be  to  Places  Within  or  Without 
the  Business. —  In  many  lines  of  business,  the 
business  itself  offers  ample  opportunity  for  pro- 
moting all  men  who  can  "  make  good "  as  rapidly 
as  they  can  prepare  themselves  for  positions  over 
others,  and  for  advancement;  but  under  Scientific 
Management  provision  is  made  even  in  case  the  busi- 
ness does  not  offer  such  opportunities.^  This  is  done 
by  the  management  finding  places  outside  their  own 
organization  for  the  men  who  are  so  trained  that  they 
can  be  advanced. 

Such  Promotion  Attracts  Workers. —  While  at  first 
glance  it  might  seem  a  most  unfortunate  thing  for 
the  management  to  have  to  let  its  men  go,  and  while, 
as  Dr.  Taylor  says,  it  is  unfortunate  for  a  business  to 
get  the  reputation  of  being  nothing  but  a  training 
school,  on  the  other  hand,  it  has  a  very  salutary  effect 
upon  the  men  to  know  that  their  employers  are  so 
disinterestedly  interested  in  them  that  they  will  pro- 
vide for  their  future,  even  at  the  risk  of  the  individual 
business  at  which  they  have  started  having  to  lose 
their  services.  This  will  not  only,  as  Dr.  Taylor 
makes  clear,  stimulate  many  men  in  the  establish- 
ment whose  men  go  on  to  take  the  places  of  those  who 

^F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  310-311,  Harper  Ed.,  pp. 
142-143- 


288  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

are  promoted,  but  will  also  be  a  great  inducement 
to  other  men  to  come  into  a  place  that  they  feel  is 
unselfish  and  generous. 

Subdivisions  of  "  Pay." —  Under  "  Pay  "  we  have 
included  eight  headings: 

1.  Wages 

2.  Bonus 

3.  Shorter  hours 

4.  Prizes  other  than  money 

5.  Extra  knowledge 

6.  Method  of  attack 

7.  Good  opinion  of  others 

8.  Professional  standing. 

Relation  Between  Wages  and  Bonus. —  Wages  and 
bonus  are  closely  related.  By  wages  we  mean  a  fixed 
sum,  or  minimum  hourly  rate,  that  the  man  gets  in 
any  case  for  his  time,  and  by  bonus  we  mean  addi- 
tional money  that  he  receives  for  achievement  of 
method,  quantity  or  quality.  Both  might  very  prop- 
erly be  included  under  wages,  or  under  money  re- 
ceived for  the  work,  or  opportunities  for  receiving 
money  for  work,  as  the  case  might  be.  In  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  different  ways  of  paying  wages  un- 
der Scientific  Management,  there  will  be  no  attempt 
to  discuss  the  economic  value  of  the  various  means; 
the  different  methods  will  simply  be  stated,  and  the 
psychological  significance  will  be,  as  far  as  possible, 
given. 

Before  discussing  the  various  kinds  of  wages  ad- 
vised by  the  experts  in  Scientific  Management,  it  is 
well  to  pause  a  moment  to  name  the  various  sorts  of 
methods  of  compensation  recognized  by  authorities. 


INCENTIVES  28g 

David  F.  Schloss  in  his  "  Method  of  Industrial 
Remuneration  "  divides  all  possible  ways  of  gaining 
remuneration  into  three  — 

1.  the  different  kinds  of  wages 

1.  time  wage 

2.  piece  wage 

3.  task  wage 

4.  progressive  wage 

5.  collective  piece  wage 

6.  collective  task  wage 

7.  collective  progressive  wage 

8.  contract  work 

9.  cooperative  work 
with 

2.  profit  sharing,  and 

3.  industrial  cooperation.  These  are  defined  and 
discussed  at  length  in  his  book  in  a  lucid  and  simple 
manner. 

It  is  only  necessary  to  quote  him  here  as  to  the 
relationship  between  these  different  forms,  where  he 
says,  page  11, — "The  two  leading  forms  of  industrial 
remuneration  under  the  Wages  System  are  time 
wages,  and  piece  wages.  Intermediate  between 
these  principal  forms,  stands  that  known  as  task 
wage,  while  supplemental  to  these  two  named  meth- 
ods, we  find  those  various  systems  which  will  here 
be  designated  by  the  name  of  Progressive  Wages."  ® 

Day  Work  Never  Scientific. —  The  simplest  of  all 

^  See  also  C.  U.  Carpenter,  Profit  Making  in  Shop  and  Factory 
Management,  pp.  113-115.  For  an  extended  and  excellent  account 
of  the  theory  of  well-known  methods  of  compensating  workmen, 
see  C.  B.  Going,  Principles  of  Industrial  Engineering,  chap.  VIII. 


290  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

systems,  says  Dr.  Taylor  in  "  A  Piece  Rate  System," 
paragraph  lo,  in  discussing  the  various  forms  of  com- 
pensation "  is  the  Day  Work  plan,  in  which  the  em- 
ployes are  divided  into  certain  classes,  and  a  stand- 
ard rate  of  wages  is  paid  to  each  class  of  men."  He 
adds  — "  The  men  are  paid  according  to  the  position 
which  they  fill,  and  not  according  to  their  individual 
character,  energy,  skill  and  reliability."  The  psy- 
chological objection  to  day  work  is  that  it  does  not 
arouse  interest  or  effort  or  hold  attention,  nor  does 
it  inspire  to  memorizing  or  to  learning. 

It  will  be  apparent  that  there  is  no  inducement 
whatever  for  the  man  to  do  more  than  just  enough 
to  retain  his  job,  for  he  in  no  wise  shares  in  the  re- 
ward for  an  extra  effort,  which  goes  entirely  to  his 
employer.  "  Reward,"  in  this  case,  is  usually  simply 
a  living  wage, —  enough  to  inspire  the  man,  if  he 
needs  the  money  enough  to  work  to  hold  his  position, 
but  not  enough  to  incite  him  to  any  extra  effort. 

It  is  true  that,  in  actual  practice,  through  the  fore- 
man or  some  man  in  authority,  the  workers  on  day 
work  may  be  "  speeded  up  "  to  a  point  where  they 
will  do  a  great  deal  of  work;  the  foreman  being  in- 
spired, of  course,  by  a  reward  for  the  extra  output, 
but,  as  Dr.  Taylor  says,  paragraph  17 — ^"  A  Piece 
Rate  System,"  this  sort  of  speeding  up  is  absolutely 
lacking  in  self-sustaining  power.  The  moment  that 
this  rewarded  foreman  is  removed,  the  work  will 
again  fall  down.  Therefore,  day  wage  has  almost 
no  place  in  ultimate,  scientifically  managed  work. 

Piece  Work  Provides  Pay  in  Proportion  to  Work 
Done. —  Piece  Work  is  the  opposite  of  time  work, 


INCENTIVES  291 

in  that  under  it  the  man  is  paid  not  for  the  time  he 
spends  at  the  work,  but  for  the  amount  of  work 
which  he  accomplishes.  Under  this  system,  as 
long  as  the  man  is  paid  a  proper  piece  rate,  and  a 
rate  high  enough  to  keep  him  interested,  he  will  have 
great  inducements  to  work.  He  will  have  a  chance 
to  develop  individuality,  a  chance  for  competition, 
a  chance  for  personal  recognition.  His  love  of  rea- 
sonable racing  will  be  cultivated.  His  love  of  play 
may  be  cultivated. 

All  of  these  incentives  arise  because  the  man  feels 
that  his  sense  of  justice  is  being  considered;  that  if 
the  task  is  properly  laid  out,  and  the  price  per  piece 
is  properly  determined,  he  is  given  a  "  square  deal" 
in  being  allowed  to  accomplish  as  great  an  amount  of 
work  as  he  can,  with  the  assurance  that  his  reward 
will  be  promptly  coming  to  him. 

Danger  of  Rate  Being  Cut. —  Piece  work  becomes 
objectionable  only  when  the  rate  is  cut.  The  mo- 
ment the  rate  is  cut  the  first  time,  the  man  begins 
to  wonder  whether  it  is  going  to  be  cut  again,  and  his 
attention  is  distracted  from  the  work  by  his  debat- 
ing this  question  constantly.  At  best,  his  attention 
wanders  from  one  subject  to  the  other,  and  back 
again.  It  cannot  be  concentrated  on  his  work. 
After  the  rate  has  been  cut  once  or  twice, —  and  it 
is  sure  to  be  cut  unless  it  has  been  set  from  scien- 
tifically derived  elementary  time  units, —  the  man 
loses  his  entire  confidence  in  the  stability  of  the  rate, 
and,  naturally,  when  he  loses  this  confidence,  his  work 
is  done  more  slowly,  due  to  lack  of  further  en- 
thusiasm.    On  the  contrary,  as  long  as  it  is  to  his 


292  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

advantage  to  do  the  work  and  he  is  sure  that  his  re- 
ward will  be  prompt,  and  that  he  will  always  get  the 
price  that  has  been  determined  as  right  by  him  and 
by  the  employers  for  his  work,  he  can  do  this  work 
easily  in  the  time  set.  As  soon  as  he  feels  that  he 
will  not  get  it,  he  will  naturally  begin  to  do  less,  as 
it  will  be  not  only  to  his  personal  advantage  to  do  as 
little  as  possible,  but  also  very  much  to  the  advan- 
tage of  his  fellows,  for  whom  the  rate  will  also  be 
cut. 

Task  Wage  Contains  No  Incentive  to  Additional 
Work. —  What  Schloss  calls  the  Task  Wage  would, 
as  he  well  says,  be  the  intermediate  between  time  or 
day  wage  and  piece  wage;  that  is,  it  would  be  the 
assigning  of  a  definite  amount  of  work  to  b€  done 
in  definite  time,  and  to  be  paid  for  by  a  definite  sum. 
If  the  task  were  set  scientifically,  and  the  time  scien- 
tifically determined,  as  it  must  naturally  be  for  a 
scientific  task,  and  the  wage  adequate  for  that  work, 
there  would  seem  to  be  nothing  about  this  form  of 
remuneration  which  could  be  a  cause  of  dissatisfac- 
tion to  the  worker.  Naturally,  however,  there  would 
be  absolutely  no  chance  for  him  to  desire  to  go  any 
faster  than  the  time  set,  or  to  accomplish  any  more 
work  in  the  time  set  than  that  which  he  was  obliged 
to,  in  that  he  could  not  possibly  get  anything  for  the 
extra  work  done. 

Worth  of  Previous  Methods  in  the  Handling. —  It 
will  be  noted  in  the  discussion  of  the  three  types  of 
compensation  so  far  discussed,  that  there  is  nothing 
in  them  that  renders  them  unscientific.  Any  one  of 
the  three  may  be  used,  and  doubtless  all  are  used,  on 


INCENTIVES  293 

works  which  are  attempting  to  operate  under  Scien- 
tific Management.  Whether  they  really  are  scien- 
tific methods  of  compensation  or  not,  is  determined 
by  the  way  that  they  are  handled.  Certainly,  how- 
ever, all  that  any  of  these  three  can  expect  to  do  is 
to  convince  the  man  that  he  is  being  treated  justly; 
that  is  to  say,  if  he  knows  what  sort  of  a  contract 
he  is  entering  into,  the  contract  is  perfectly  fair,  pro- 
vided that  the  management  keeps  its  part  of  the  con- 
tract, pays  the  agreed-upon  wage. 

In  proceeding,  instead  of  following  the  order  of 
Schloss  we  will  follow  the  order,  at  least  for  a  time, 
of  Dr.  Taylor  in  "  A  Piece  Rate  System  " ;  this  for 
two  reasons: 

First,  for  the  reason  that  the  "  Piece  Rate  Sys- 
tem"  is  later  than  Schloss'  book,  Schloss  being  1891, 
and  the  "Piece  Rate"  being  1895;  in  the  second 
place  that  we  are  following  the  Scientific  Manage- 
ment side  in  distinction  to  the  general  economic  side, 
laid  down  by  Schloss.  There  is,  however,  nothing 
in  our  plan  of  discussion  here  to  prevent  one's  fol- 
lowing fairly  closely  in  the  Schloss  also. 

The  Gain-sharing  Plan. —  We  take  up,  then,  the 
Gain-sharing  Plan  which  was  invented  by  Mr.  Henry 
R.  Towne  and  used  by  him  with  success  in  the  Yale 
&  Towne  works.  This  is  described  in  a  paper  read 
before  the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  En- 
gineers, in  professional  paper  No.  341,  in  1888  and 
also  in  the  Premium  Plan,  Mr.  Halsey's  modification 
of  it,  described  by  him  in  a  paper  entitled  the  "  Pre- 
mium Plan  of  Paying  for  Labor,"  American  Society 
of  Mechanical  Engineers,  1891,  Paper  449.     In  this, 


294  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

in  describing  the  Profit-sharing  Plan,  Mr.  Halsey 
says  — "  Under  it,  in  addition  to  regular  wages,  the 
employes  were  offered  a  certain  percentage  of  the 
final  profits  of  the  business.  It  thus  divides  the  sav- 
ings due  to  increased  production  between  employer 
and  employe." 

Objections  to  This  Plan. —  We  note  here  the  ob- 
jection to  this  plan:  First, — "  The  workmen. are  given 
a  share  in  what  they  do  not  earn;  second,  the  work- 
men share  regardless  of  individual  deserts;  third,  the 
promised  rewards  are  remote ;  fourth,  the  plan  makes 
no  provision  for  bad  years;  fifth,  the  workmen  have 
no  means  of  knowing  if  the  agreement  is  carried  out." 
Without  discussing  any  farther  whether  these  are 
worded  exactly  as  all  who  have  tried  the  plan  might 
have  found  them,  we  may  take  these  on  Mr.  Halsey's 
authority  and  discuss  the  psychology  of  them.  If  the 
workmen  are  given  a  share  in  what  they  do  not  earn, 
they  have  absolutely  no  feeling  that  they  are  being 
treated  justly.  This  extra  reward  which  is  given  to 
them,  if  in  the  nature  of  a  present,  might  much  bet- 
ter be  a  present  out  and  out.  If  it  has  no  scientific 
relation  to  what  they  have  gotten,  if  the  workmen 
share  regardless  of  individual  deserts,  this,  as  Dr. 
Taylor  says,  paragraph  2^  in  the  "  Piece  Rate  Sys- 
tem," is  the  most  serious  defect  of  all,  in  that  it  does 
not  allow  for  recognition  of  the  personal  merits  of 
each  workman.  If  the  rewards  are  remote,  the  in- 
terest is  diminished.  If  the  plan  makes  no  provision 
for  bad  years,  it  cannot  be  self-perpetuating.  If  the 
workmen  have  no  means  of  knowing  if  the  agree- 
ment will  be  carried  out  or  not,  they  will  be  con- 


INCENTIVES  395 

stantly  wondering  whether  it  is  being  carried  out  or 
not,  and  their  attention  will  wander. 

The  Premium  Plan. —  The  Premium  Plan  is  thus 
described  by  Mr.  Halsey  — "  The  time  required  to  do 
a  given  piece  of  work  is  determined  from  previous 
experience,  and  the  workman,  in  addition  to  his  usual 
daily  wages,  is  offered  a  premium  for  every  hour  by 
which  he  reduces  that  time  on  future  work,  the 
amount  of  the  premium  being  less  than  his  rate  of 
wages.  Making  the  hourly  premium  less  than  the 
hourly  wages  is  the  foundation  stone  upon  which 
rest  all  the  merits  of  the  system." 

Dr.  Taylor's  Description  of  This  Plan. — Dr.  Taylor 
comments  upon  this  plan  as  follows: 

"  The  Towne-Halsey  plan  consists  in  recording  the 
quickest  time  in  which  a  job  has  been  done,  and  fixing 
this  as  a  standard.  If  the  workman  succeeds  in  do- 
ing the  job  in  a  shorter  time,  he  is  still  paid  his  same 
wages  per  hour  for  the  time  he  works  on  the  job, 
and,  in  addition,  is  given  a  premium  for  having 
worked  faster,  consisting  of  from  one-quarter  to  one- 
half  the  difference  between  the  wages  earned  and  the 
wages  originally  paid  when  the  job  was  done  in 
standard  time."  Dr.  Taylor's  discussion  of  this  plan 
will  be  found  in  "  Shop  Management,"  paragraphs 
79  to  91. 

Psychologically,  the  defect  of  this  system  undoubt- 
edly is  that  it  does  not  rest  upon  accurate  scientific 
time  study,  therefore  neither  management  nor  men 
can  predict  accurately  what  is  going  to  happen.  Not 
being  able  to  predict,  they  are  unable  to  devote  their 
entire  attention  to  the  work  in  hand,  and  the  result 


2g6  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

cannot  be  as  satisfactory  as  under  an  assigned  task, 
based  upon  time  study.  The  discussion  of  this  is  so 
thorough  in  Dr.  Taylor's  work,  and  in  Mr.  Halsey's 
work,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  introduce  more  here. 

Profit-sharing, —  Before  turning  to  the  methods  of 
compensation  which  are  based  upon  the  task,  it  might 
be  well  to  introduce  here  mention  of  "  Coopera- 
tion," or  "  Profit-sharing,"  which,  in  its  extreme 
form,  usually  means  the  sharing  of  the  profits  from 
the  business  as  a  whole,  among  the  men  who  do  the 
work.  This  is  further  discussed  by  Schloss,  and  also 
by  Dr.  Taylor  in  paragraphs  32  to  35,  in  "A  Piece 
Rate  System  " ;  also  in  "  Shop  Management,"  quo- 
ting from  the  "  Piece  Rate  System,"  paragraphs  73 
to  y-j. 

Objections  to  Profit-sharing. —  The  objections.  Dr. 
Taylor  says,  to  cooperation  are,  first  in  the  fact  that 
no  form  of  cooperation  has  been  devised  in  which 
each  individual  is  allowed  free  scope  for  his  personal 
ambition;  second,  in  the  remoteness  of  the  reward; 
third,  in  the  unequitable  division  of  the  profits.  If 
each  individual  is  not  allowed  free  scope,  one  sees 
at  once  that  the  entire  advantage  of  individuality, 
and  of  personal  recognition,  is  omitted.  If  the  re- 
ward is  remote,  we  recognize  that  its  power  di- 
minishes very  rapidly;  arid  if  there  cannot  be  eq- 
uitable division  of  the  profits,  not  only  will  the  men 
ultimately  not  be  satisfied,  but  they  will,  after  a  short 
time,  not  even  be  satisfied  while  they  are  working, 
because  their  minds  will  constantly  be  distracted  by 
the  fact  that  the  division  will  probably  not  be  eq- 


INCENTIVES  297 

uitable,  and  also  by  the  fact  that  they  will  be  trying 
to  plan  ways  in  which  they  can  get  their  proper 
share.  Thus,  not  only  in  the  ultimate  outcome,  but 
also  during  the  entire  process,  the  work  will  slow 
up  necessarily,  because  the  men  can  have  no  assur- 
ance either  that  the  work  itself,  or  the  output,  have 
been  scientifically  determined. 

Scientific  Management  Embodies  Valuable  Ele- 
ments of  Profit-sharing. —  Scientific  Management 
embodies  the  valuable  elements  of  profit-sharing, 
namely,  the  idea  of  cooperation,  and  the  idea  that  the 
workers  should  share  in  the  profit. 

That  the  latter  of  these  two  is  properly  emphasized 
by  Scientific  Management  is  not  always  understood 
by  the  workers.  When  a  worker  is  enabled  to  make 
three  or  four  times  as  much  output  in  a  day  as  he  has 
been  accustomed  to,  he  may  think  that  he  is  not  get- 
ting his  full  share  of  the  "  spoils  "  of  increased  effi- 
ciency, unless  he  gets  a  proportionately  increased 
rate  of  pay.  It  should,  therefore,  be  early  made  clear 
to  him  that  the  saving  has  been  caused  by  the  ac- 
tions of  the  management,  quite  as  much  as  by  the  in- 
creased efforts  for  productivity  of  the  men.  Fur- 
thermore, a  part  of  the  savings  must  go  to  pay  for 
the  extra  cost  of  maintaining  the  standard  conditions 
that  make  such  output  possible.  The  necessary 
planners  and  teachers  usually  are  sufficient  as  object- 
lessons  to  convince  the  workers  of  the  necessity  of 
not  giving  all  the  extra  savings  to  the  workers. 

It  is  realized  that  approximately  one  third  of  the 
extra  profits  from  the  savings  must  go  to  the  em- 


398  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

ployer,  about  one  third  to  the  employes,  and  the  re- 
mainder for  maintaining  the  system  and  carrying  out 
further  investigations. 

This  once  understood,  the  satisfaction  that  results 
from  a  cooperative,  profit-sharing  type  of  manage- 
ment will  be  enjoyed. 

The  five  methods  of  compensation  which  are  to 
follow  are  all  based  upon  the  task,  as  laid  down  by 
Dr.  Taylor;  that  is  to  say,  upon  time  study,  and  an 
exact  knowledge  by  the  man,  and  the  employers,  of 
how  much  work  can  be  done. 

Differential  Rate  Piece  Work  the  Ultimate  Form 
of  Compensation. —  Dr.  Taylor's  method  of  com- 
pensation, which  is  acknowledged  by  all  thoroughly 
grounded  in  Scientific  Management  to  be  the  ulti- 
mate form  of  compensation  where  it  can  be  used,  is 
called  Differential  Rate  Piece  Work.  It  is  described 
in  "  A  Piece  Rate  System,"  paragraphs  50  to  52,  as 
follows :  — 

"  This  consists,  briefly,  in  paying  a  higher  price 
per  piece,  or  per  unit,  or  per  job,  if  the  work  is  done 
in  the  shortest  possible  time  and  without  imperfec- 
tion, than  is  paid  if  the  work  takes  a  longer  time  or 
is  imperfectly  done.  To  illustrate  —  suppose  20 
units,  or  pieces,  to  be  the  largest  amount  of  work  of 
a  certain  kind  that  can  be  done  in  a  day.  Under  the 
differential  rate  system,  if  a  workman  finishes  20 
pieces  per  day,  and  all  of  these  pieces  are  perfect, 
he  receives,  say,  15  cents  per  piece,  making  his  pay 
for  the  day  15  times  20  =  $3.00.  If,  however,  he 
works  too  slowly  and  turns  out  only,  say  19  pieces, 
then  instead  of  receiving  15  cents  per  piece  he  gets 


INCENTIVES  299 

only  12  cents  per  piece,  making  his  pay  for  the  day 
i2Xi9=$2.28,  instead  of  $3.00  per  day.  If  he  suc- 
ceeds in  finishing  20  pieces  —  some  of  which  are  im- 
perfect —  then  he  should  receive  a  still  lower  rate  of 
pay,  say  loc  or  5c  per  piece,  according  to  circum- 
stances, making  his  pay  for  the  day  $2.00  or  only  $1.00, 
instead  of  $3.00." 

Advantages  of  This  System. —  This  system  is 
founded  upon  knowledge  that  for  a  large  reward  men 
will  do  a  large  amount  of  work.  The  small  compen- 
sation for  a  small  amount  of  work  —  and  under 
this  system  the  minimum  compensation  is  a  little  be- 
low the  regular  day's  work  —  may  lead  men  to  exert 
themselves  to  accomplish  more  work.  This  system 
appeals  to  the  justice  of  the  men,  in  that  it  is  more 
nearly  an  exact  ratio  of  pay  to  endeavor. 

Task  Work  with  a  Bonus. —  The  Task  work  with 
Bonus  system  of  compensation,  which  is  the  inven- 
tion of  Mr.  H.  L.  Gantt,  is  explained  in  "A  Bonus 
System  of  Rewarding  Labor,"  paper  923,  read  before 
the  American  Society  of  Mechanical  Engineers,  De- 
cember, 1901,  by  Mr.  Gantt.  This  system  is  there 
described  as  follows :  — 

"  If  the  man  follows  his  instructions  and  accom- 
plishes all  the  work  laid  out  for  him  as  constituting 
his  proper  task  for  the  day,  he  is  paid  a  definite  bonus 
in  addition  to  the  day  rate  which  he  always  gets.  If, 
however,  at  the  end  of  the  day  he  has  failed  to  ac- 
complish all  of  the  work  laid  out,  he  does  not  get  his 
bonus,  but  simply  his  day  rate."  This  system  of  com- 
pensation is  explained  more  fully  in  Chapter  VI  of 
Mr.    Gantt's    book,    "Work,    Wages    and    Profits," 


300  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

where  he  explains  the  modification  now  used  by  him 
in  the  bonus. 

Advantages  of  Task  Work  with  a  Bonus. —  The 

psychological  advantage  of  the  task  with  a  Bonus  is 
the  fact  that  the  worker  has  the  assurance  of  a  living 
wage  while  learning,  no  matter  whether  he  succeeds 
in  winning  his  bonus  or  not.  In  the  last  analysis,  it  is 
"  day  rate  "  for  the  unskilled,  and  "  piece  rate  "  for 
the  skilled,  and  it  naturally  leads  to  a  feeling  of  se- 
curity in  the  worker.  Mr.  Gantt  has  so  admirably 
explained  the  advantages,  psychological  as  well  as 
industrial,  of  his  system,  that  it  is  unnecessary  to  go 
farther,  except  to  emphasize  the  fine  feeling  of 
brotherhood  which  underlies  the  idea,  and  its  ex- 
pression. 

The  Differential  Bonus  System. —  The  Differential 
Bonus  System  of  Compensation  is  the  invention  of 
Mr.  Frederick  A.  Parkhurst,  and  is  described  by  him 
in  his  book  "  Applied  Methods  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment." 

"  The  time  the  job  should  be  done  in  is  first  de- 
termined by  analysis  and  time  study.  The  bonus  is 
then  added  above  the  day  work  line.  No  bonus  is 
paid  until  a  definitely  determined  time  is  realized. 
As  the  time  is  reduced,  the  bonus  is  increased." 

Three  Rate  with  Increased  Rate  System. —  The 
Three  Rate  System  of  Compensation  is  the  inven- 
tion of  Mr.  Frank  B.  Gilbreth  and  consists  of  day 
work,  i.  e.,  a  day  rate,  or  a  flat  minimum  rate,  which 
all  who  are  willing  to  work  receive  until  they  can 
try  themselves  out;  of  a  middle  rate,  which  is  given 
to  the  man  when  he  accomplishes  the  work  with  ex- 


INCENTIVES  301 

actness  of  compliance  to  prescribed  motions,  accord- 
ing" to  the  requirements  of  his  instruction  card;  and 
of  a  high  rate,  which  is  paid  to  the  man  when  he  not 
only  accomplishes  the  task  in  accordance  with  the 
instruction  card,  but  also  within  the  set  time  and  of 
the  prescribed  quality  of  finished  work. 

Advantage  of  This  System. —  The  advantage  of 
this  is,  first  of  all,  that  the  man  does  not  have  to  look 
forward  so  far  for  some  of  his  reward,  as  it  comes 
to  him  just  as  soon  as  he  has  shown  himself  able  to 
do  the  prescribed  methods  required  accurately.  The 
first  extra  reward  is  naturally  a  stimulus  toward  win- 
ning the  second  extra  reward.  The  middle  rate  is 
a  stimulus  to  endeavor  to  perform  that  method  which 
will  enable  him  easiest  to  achieve  the  accomplishment 
of  the  task  that  pays  the  highest  wage.  The  day  rate 
assures  the  man  of  a  living  wage.  The  middle  rate 
pays  him  a  bonus  for  trying  to  learn.  The  high  rate 
gives  him  a  piece  rate  when  he  is  skilled. 

Lastly,  as  the  man  can  increase  his  output,  with 
continued  experience,  above  that  of  the  task,  he  re- 
ceives a  differential  rate  piece  on  the  excess  quantity, 
this  simply  making  an  increasing  stimulus  to  exceed 
his  previous  best  record. 

All  Task  Systems  Investigate  Loss  of  Bonus. — 
Under  all  these  bonus  forms  of  wages,  if  the  bonus  is 
not  gained  the  fact  is  at  once  investigated,  in  order 
that  the  blame  may  rest  where  it  belongs.  The  blame 
may  rest  upon  the  workers,  or  it  may  be  due  to  the 
material,  which  may  be  defective,  or  different  from 
standard;  it  may  be  upon  the  supervision,  or  some 
fault  of  the  management  in  not  supplying  the  ma- 


302  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

terial  in  the  proper  quality,  or  sequence,  or  a  bad 
condition  of  tools  or  machinery;  or  upon  the  instruc- 
tion card.  The  fact  that  the  missing  of  the  bonus 
is  investigated  is  an  added  assurance  to  the  work- 
man that  he  is  getting  the  "  square  deal,"  and  enlists 
his  sympathy  with  these  forms  of  bonus  system,  and 
his  desire  to  work  under  them.  The  fact  that  the 
management  will  investigate  also  allows  him  to  con- 
centrate upon  output,  with  no  worry  as  to  the  neces- 
sity of  his  investigating  places  where  he  has  fallen 
short. 

Necessity  for  Workers  Bearing  This  Loss. — In  any 
case,  whether  the  blame  for  losing  the  bonus  is  the 
worker's  fault  directly  or  not,  he  loses  his  bonus. 
This,  for  two  reasons ;  in  the  first  place,  if  he  did  not 
lose  his  bonus  he  would  have  no  incentive  to  try  to 
discover  flaws  before  delays  occurred;  he  would, 
otherwise,  have  an  incentive  to  allow  the  material 
to  pass  through  his  hands,  defective  or  imperfect  as 
the  case  might  be.  This  is  very  closely  associated 
with  the  second  reason,  and  that  is,  that  the  bonus 
comes  from  the  savings  caused  by  the  plan  of  man- 
agement, and  that  it  is  necessary  that  the  workers 
as  well  as  the  management  shall  see  that  everything 
possible  tends  to  increase  the  saving.  It  is  only  as 
the  worker  feels  that  his  bonus  is  a  part  of  the  sav- 
ing, that  he  recognizes  the  justice  of  his  receiving  it, 
that  it  is  in  no  wise  a  gift  to  him,  simply  his  proper 
share,  accorded  not  by  any  system  of  philanthropy, 
or  so-called  welfare  work,  but  simply  because  his  own 
personal  work  has  made  it  possible  for  the  manage- 
ment to  hand  back  his  share  to  him. 


INCENTIVES  303 

Users  of  Any  Task  System  Appreciate  Other  Task 

Systems. —  It  is  of  great  importance  to  the  workers 
that  the  users  of  any  of  these  five  methods  of  compen- 
sation of  Scientific  Management  are  all  ready  and 
glad  to  acknowledge  the  worth  of  all  these  systems. 
In  many  works  more  than  one,  in  some  all,  of  these 
systems  of  payment  may  be  in  use.  Far  from  this 
resulting  in  confusion,  it  simply  leads  to  the  under- 
standing that  whatever  is  best  in  the  particular  situ- 
ation should  be  used.  It  also  leads  to  a  feeling  of 
stability  everywhere,  as  a  man  who  has  worked  under 
any  of  these  systems  founded  on  time  study  can  easily 
pass  to  another.  There  is  also  a  great  gain  here  in 
the  doing  away  of  industrial  warfare. 

Shorter  Hours  and  Holidays  Effective  Rewards.— 
Probably  the  greatest  incentive,  next  to  promotion 
and  more  pay,  are  shorter  hours  and  holidays.  In 
some  cases,  the  shorter  hours,  or  holidays,  have 
proven  even  more  attractive  to  the  worker  than  the 
increase  of  pay.  In  Shop  Management,  paragraph 
165,  Dr.  Taylor  describes  a  case  where  children  work- 
ing were  obliged  to  turn  their  entire  pay  envelopes 
over  to  their  parents.  To  them,  there  was  no  par- 
ticular incentive  in  getting  more  money,  but,  when 
the  task  was  assigned,  if  they  were  allowed  to  go  as 
soon  as  their  task  was  completed,  the  output  was  ac- 
complished in  a  great  deal  shorter  time.  Another 
case  where  shorter  hours  were  successfully  tried,  was 
in  an  office  where  the  girls  were  allowed  the  entire 
Saturday  every  two  weeks,  if  the  work  was  accom- 
plished within  a  set  amount  of  time.  This  extra 
time  for  shopping  and  matinees  proved  more  attrac- 


304  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

tive  than  any  reasonable  amount  of  extra  pay  that 
could  be  offered. 

Desire  for  Approbation  an  Incentive. —  Under  "  In- 
dividuality "  were  discussed  various  devices  for  de- 
veloping the  individuality  of  the  man,  such  as  his 
picture  over  a  good  output  or  record.  ThesQ  all  act 
as  rewards  or  incentives.  How  successful  they  would 
be,  depends  largely  upon  the  temperament  ol  the  man 
and  the  sort  of  work  that  is  to  be  done.  In  all  classes 
of  society,  among  all  sorts  of  people,  there  is  the 
type  that  loves  approbation.  This  type  will  be  ap- 
pealed to  more  by  a  device  which  allows  others  to 
see  what  has  been  done  than  by  almost  anything  else. 
As  to  what  this  device  must  be,  depends  on  the  in- 
telligence of  the  man. 

Necessity  for  Cooperation  a  Strong  Incentive. — 
Under  Scientific  Management,  many  workers  are 
forced  by  their  coworkers  to  try  to  earn  their  bo- 
nuses, as  "  falling  down  on "  tasks,  and  therefore 
schedules,  may  force  them  to  lose  their  bonuses  also. 

The  fact  that,  in  many  kinds  of  work,  a  man  falling 
below  his  task  will  prevent  his  fellows  from  working, 
is  often  a  strong  incentive  to  that  man  to  make  better 
speed.  For  example,  on  a  certain  construction  job 
in  Canada,  the  teamsters  were  shown  that,  by  their 
work,  they  were  cutting  down  working  opportunities 
for  cart  loaders,  who  could  only  be  hired  as  the 
teamsters  hauled  sufficient  loads  to  keep  them  busy. 

Value  of  Knowledge  Gained  an  Incentive  to  a  Few 
Only. — Extra  knowledge,  and  the  better  method  of 
attack  learned  under  Scientific  Management,  are  re- 
wards that  will  be  appreciated  by  those  of  superior 


INCENTIVES  30s 

intelligence  only.  They  will,  in  a  way,  be  appreci- 
ated by  all,  because  it  will  be  realized  that,  through 
what  is  learned,  more  pay  or  promotion  is  received, 
but  the  fact  that  this  extra  knowledge,  and  better 
method  of  attack,  will  enable  one  to  do  better  in  all 
lines,  not  simply  in  the  line  at  which  one  is  working, 
and  will  render  one's  life  more  full  and  rich,  will  be 
appreciated  only  by  those  of  a  wide  experience. 

Acquired  Professional  Standing  a  Powerful  Incen- 
tive.—  Just  as  the  success  of  the  worker  under  Scien- 
tific Management  assures  such  admiration  by  his 
fellow-workers  as  will  serve  as  an  incentive  toward 
further  success,  so  the  professional  standing  attained 
by  success  in  Scientific  Management  acts  as  an  in- 
centive to  those  in  more  responsible  positions. 

As  soon  as  it  is  recognized  that  Scientific  Manage- 
ment furnishes  the  only  real  measure  of  efficiency, 
its  close  relationship  to  professional  standing  will  be 
recognized,  and  the  reward  which  it  can  offer  in  this 
line  will  be  more  fully  appreciated. 

Punishments  Negative  and  Positive. —  Punishments 
may  be  first  negative,  that  is,  simply  a  loss  of  promised 
rewards.  Such  punishments,  especially  in  cases  of 
men  who  have  once  had  the  reward,  usually  will  act 
as  the  necessary  stimulus  to  further  activity.  Pun- 
ishments may  also  be  positive,  such  things  as  fines, 
assignment  to  less  pleasant  work,  or  as  a  last  resort, 
discharge. 

Fines  Never  Accrue  to  the  Management. —  Fines 
have  been  a  most  successful  mode  of  punishment 
under  Scientific  Management.  Under  many  of  the 
old  forms  of  management,  the  fines  were  turned  back 


3o6  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

to  the  management  itself,  thus  raising  a  spirit  of 
animosity  in  the  men,  who  felt  that  everything  that 
they  suffered  was  a  gain  to  those  over  them.  Under 
Scientific  Management  all  fines  are  used  in  some  way 
for  *the  benefit  of  the  men  themselves.  All  fines 
should  be  used  for  some  benefit  fund,  or  turned  into 
the  insurance  fund.  The  fines,  as  has  been  said,  are 
determined  solely  by  the  disciplinarian,  who  is  dis- 
interested in  the  disposition  of  the  funds  thus  col- 
lected. As  the  fines  do  not  in  any  way  benefit  the 
management,  and  in  fact  rather  hurt  the  management 
in  that  the  men  who  pay  them,  no  matter  where  they 
are  applied,  must  feel  more  or  less  discouraged,  it  is, 
naturally,  for  the  benefit  of  the  management  that  there 
shall  be  as  few  fines  as  possible.  Both  management 
and  men  realize  this,  which  leads  to  industrial  peace, 
and  also  leads  the  managers,  the  functional  fore- 
men, and  in  fact  every  one,  to  eliminate  the  necessity 
and  cause  for  fines  to  as  great  an  extent  as  is  possible. 

Assignment  to  Less  Pleasant  Work  Effective  Pun- 
ishment.—  Assignment  to  less  pleasant  work  is  a 
very  effective  form  of  discipline.  It  has  many  ad- 
vantages which  do  not  show  on  the  surface.  The 
man  may  not  really  get  a  cut  in  pay,  though  his  work 
be  changed,  and  thus  the  damage  he  receives  is  in 
no  wise  to  his  purse,  but  simply  to  his  feeling  of 
pride.  In  the  meantime,  he  is  gaining  a  wider  ex- 
perience of  the  business,  so  that  even  the  worst  dis- 
advantage has  its  bright  side. 

Discharge  To  Be  Avoided  Wherever  Possible. — 
Discharge  is,  of  course,  available  under  Scientific 
Management,  as  under  all  other  forms,  but  it  is  really 


INCENTIVES  307 

less  used  under  Scientific  Management  than  under 
any  other  sort,  because  if  a  man  is  possibly  available, 
and  in  any  way  trained,  it  is  better  to  do  almost  any- 
thing to  teach  him,  to  assign  him  to  different  work, 
to  try  and  find  his  possibilities,  than  to  let  him  go, 
and  have  all  that  teaching  wasted  as  far  as  the  organ- 
ization which  has  taught  it  is  concerned. 

Discharge  a  Grave  Injury  to  a  Worker. —  More- 
over, Scientific  Management  realizes  that  discharge 
may  be  a  grave  injury  to  a  worker.  As  Mr.  James 
M.  Dodge,  who  has  been  most  successful  in  Scientific 
Management  and  is  noted  for  his  good  work  for  his 
fellow-men,  eloquently  pleads,  in  a  paper  on  "The 
Spirit  in  Which  Scientific  Management  Should  Be 
Approached,"  given  before  the  Conference  on  Scien- 
tific Management  at  Dartmouth  College,  October, 
1911 : 

"  It  is  a  serious  thing  for  a  worker  who  has  located 
his  home  within  reasonable  proximity  to  his  place 
of  employment  and  with  proper  regard  for  the  school- 
ing of  his  children,  to  have  to  seek  other  employment 
and  readjust  his  home  affairs,  with  a  loss  of  time  and 
wages.  Proper  management  takes  account  not  only 
of  this  fact,  but  also  of  the  fact  that  there  is  a  distinct 
loss  to  the  employer  when  an  old  and  experienced 
employe  is  replaced  by  a  new  man,  who  must  be 
educated  in  the  methods  of  the  establishment.  An 
old  employe  has,  in  his  experience,  a  potential  value 
that  should  not  be  lightly  disregarded,  and  there 
should  be  in  case  of  dismissal  the  soundest  of  rea- 
sons, in  which  personal  prejudice  or  temporary  men- 
tal condition  of  the  foreman  should  play  no  part. 


3o8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

"  Constant  changing  of  employes  is  not  wholesome 
for  any  establishment,  and  the  sudden  discovery  by 
a  foreman  that  a  man  who  has  been  employed  for  a 
year  or  more  is  *  no  good '  is  often  a  reflection  on 
the  foreman,  and  more  often  still,  is  wholly  untrue. 
All  working  men,  unless  they  develop  intemperate 
or  dishonest  habits,  have  desirable  value  in  them,  and 
the  conserving  and  increasing  of  their  value  is  a  duty 
which  should  be  assumed  by  their  superiors." 

Punishment  Can  Never  Be  Entirely  Abolished. — 
It  might  be  asked  why  punishments  are  needed  at 
all  under  this  system;  that  is,  why  positive  punis|i- 
ments  are  needed.  Why  not  merely  a  lack  of  reward 
for  the  slight  offenses,  and  a  discharge  if  it  gets  too 
bad?  It  must  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  pun- 
ishments are  needed  to  insure  a  proper  appreciation  of 
the  reward.  If  there  is  no  negative  side,  the  beauty 
of  the  reward  will  never  be  realized;  the  man  who 
has  once  suffered  by  having  his  pay  cut  for  something 
which  he  has  done  wrong,  will  be  more  than  ready 
to  keep  up  to  the  standard.  In  the  second  place,  un- 
less individuals  are  ptmished,  the  rights  of  other 
individuals  will,  necessarily,  be  encroached  upon. 
When  it  is  considered  that  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment the  man  who  gives  the  punishment  is  the  dis- 
interested disciplinarian,  that  the  punishment  is 
made  exactly  appropriate  to  the  offense,  and  that  no 
advantage  from  it  comes  to  any  one  except  the  men 
themselves,  it  can  be  understood  that  the  psycho- 
logical basis  is  such  as  to  make  a  punishment  rather 
an  incentive  than  a  detriment. 

Direct   Incentives  Numerous  and  Powerful. —  As 


INCENTIVES  309 

for  the  direct  incentives,  these  are  so  many  that  it  is 
possible  to  enumerate  only  a  few.     For  example  — 

This  may  be  simply  a  result  of  love  of  speed,  love  of 
play,  or  love  of  activity,  or  it  may  be,  in  the  case 
of  a  man  running  a  machine,  not  so  much  for  the  love 
of  the  activity  as  for  a  love  of  seeing  things  progress 
rapidly.  There  is  a  love  of  contest  which  has  been 
thoroughly  discussed  under  "  Athletic  Contests," 
which  results  in  racing,  and  in  all  the  pleasures  of 
competition. 

Racing  Directed  Under  Scientific  Management. — 
The  psychology  of  the  race  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is  most  interesting.  The  race  is  not  a  device 
of  Scientific  Management  to  speed  up  the  worker, 
any  speed  that  would  be  demanded  by  Scientific  Man- 
agement beyond  the  task-speed  would  be  an  unscien- 
tific thing.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  the  scope  of 
Scientific  Management  to  bar  out  any  contests  which 
would  not  be  for  the  ultimate  harm  of  the  workers. 
Such  interference  would  hamper  individuality;  would 
make  the  workers  feel  that  they  were  restricted  and 
held  down.  While  the  workers  are,  under  Scientific 
Management,  supposed  to  be  under  the  supervision 
of  some  one  who  can  see  that  the  work  is  only  such 
as  they  can  do  and  continuously  thrive,  any  such  in- 
terference as,  for  example,  stopping  a  harmless  race, 
would  at  once  make  them  feel  that  their  individual 
initiative  was  absolutely  destroyed.  It  is  not  the  de- 
sire of  Scientific  Management  to  do  anything  of  that 
sort,  but  rather  to  use  every  possible  means  to  make 
the  worker  feel  that  his  initiative  is  being  conserved. 

All  "  Native  Reactions  "  Act  as  Incentives. —  Pride, 


3IO  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

self-confidence,  pugnacity, —  all  the  "  native  reac- 
tions "  utilized  by  teaching  serve  as  direct  incentives. 

Results  of  Incentives  to  the  Work. —  All  incentives 
in  every  form  of  management,  tend,  from  their  very 
nature,  to  increase  output.  When  Scientific  Man- 
agement is  introduced,  there  is  selection  of  such  in- 
centives as  will  produce  greatest  amount  of  specified 
output,  and  the  results  can  be  predicted. 

Results  of  Incentives  to  the  Worker. —  Under  Tra- 
ditional Management  the  incentives  are  usually  such 
that  the  worker  is  likely  to  overwork  himself  if  he 
allows  himself  to  be  driven  by  the  incentive.  This 
results  in  bodily  exhaustion.  So,  also,  the  anxiety 
that  accompanies  an  unstandardized  incentive  leads 
to  mental  exhaustion.  With  the  introduction  of 
Transitory  Management,  danger  from  both  these 
types  of  exhaustion  is  removed.  The  incentive  is  so 
modified  that  it  is  instantly  subject  to  judgment  as 
to  its  ultimate  value. 

Scientific  Management  makes  the  incentives 
stronger  than  they  are  under  any  other  type,  partly 
by  removing  sources  of  worry,  waste  and  hesitation, 
partly  by  determining  the  ratio  of  incentive  to  out- 
put. The  worker  under  such  incentives  gains  in 
bodily  and  mental  poise  and  security. 


CHAPTER  X 
WELFARE 

Definition  of  Welfare. — "  Welfare  "  means  "  a  state 
or  condition  of  doing  well;  prosperous  or  satisfactory 
course  or  relation;  exemption  from  evil;"  in  other 
words,  well-being.  This  is  the  primary  meaning  of 
the  word.  But,  to-day,  it  is  used  so  often  as  an  ad- 
jective, to  describe  work  which  is  being  attempted 
for  the  good  of  industrial  workers,  that  any  use  of  the 
word  welfare  has  that  fringe  of  meaning  to  it. 

"  Welfare  "  Here  Includes  Two  Meanings. —  In  the 
discussion  of  welfare  in  this  chapter,  both  meanings 
of  the  word  will  be  included.  "  Welfare  "  under  each 
form  of  management  will  be  discussed,  first,  as  mean- 
ing the  outcome  to  the  men  of  the  type  of  manage- 
ment itself;  and  second,  as  discussing  the  sort  of  wel- 
fare work  which  is  used  under  that  form  of  manage- 
ment. 

Discussion  of  First  Answers.  Three  Questions. — 
A  discussion  of  welfare  as  the  result  of  work  divides 
itself  naturally  into  three  parts,  or  three  questions: 

What  is  the  effect  upon  the  physical  life  ? 

What  is  the  effect  upon  the  mental  life? 

What  is  the  effect  upon  the  moral  life? 

Under  Traditional  Management  No  Physical  Im- 
provement.—  The  indefiniteness  of  Traditional  Man- 

3" 


312  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

agement  manifests  itself  again  in  this  discussion,  it 
being  almost  impossible  to  make  any  general  state- ^ 
ment  which  could  not  be  controverted  by  particular 
examples;  but  it  is  safe  to  say  that  in  general,  under 
Traditional  Management,  there  is  not  a  definite  phy- 
sical improvement  in  the  average  worker.  In  the 
first  place,  there  is  no  provision  for  regularity  in  the 
work.  The  planning  not  being  done  ahead,  the  man 
has  absolutely  no  way  of  knowing  exactly  what  he 
will  be  called  upon  to  do.  There  being  no  measure 
of  fatigue,  he  has  no  means  of  knowing  whether  he 
can  go  to  work  the  second  part  of  the  day,  say,  with 
anything  like  the  efficiency  with  which  he  could  go 
to  work  in  the  first  part  of  the  day.  There  being  no 
standard,  the  amount  of  work  which  he  can  turn  out 
must  vary  according  as  the  tools,  machinery  and 
equipment  are  in  proper  condition,  and  the  material 
supplies  his  needs. 

No  Good  Habits  Necessarily  Formed. —  In  the 
second  place,  under  Traditional  Management  there 
are  no  excellent  habits  necessarily  formed.  The  man 
is  left  to  do  fairly  as  he  pleases,  if  only  the  general 
outcome  be  considered  sufficient  by  those  over  him. 
There  may  be  a  physical  development  on  his  part, 
if  the  work  be  of  a  kind  which  can  develop  him,  or 
which  he  likes  to  such  an  extent  that  he  is  willing  to 
do  enough  of  it  to  develop  him  physically;  this  liking 
may  come  through  the  play  element,  or  through  the 
love  of  work,  or  through  the  love  of  contest,  or 
through  some  other  desire  for  activity,  but  it  is  not 
provided  for  scientifically,  and  the  outcome  cannot  be 
exactly  predicted.    Therefore,  under  Traditional  Man- 


WELFARE  313 

agement  there  is  no  way  of  knowing  that  good  health 
and  increased  strength  will  result  from  the  work,  and 
we  know  that  in  many  cases  poor  health  and  depleted 
strength  have  been  the  outcome  of  the  work.  We 
may  say  then  fairly,  as  far  as  physical  improvement 
is  concerned  that,  though  it  might  be  the  outcome  of 
Traditional  Management,  it  was  rather  in  spite  of 
Traditional  Management,  in  the  sense  at  least  that  the 
management  had  nothing  to  do  with  it,  and  had  ab- 
solutely no  way  of  providing  for  it.  The  moment 
that  it  was  provided  for  in  any  systematic  way,  the 
Traditional  Management  vanished. 

No  Directed  Mental  Development. —  Second,  men- 
tal development.  Here,  again,  there  being  no  fixed 
habits,  no  specially  trained  habit  of  attention,  no 
standard,  there  was  no  way  of  knowing  that  the  man's 
mind  was  improving.  Naturally,  all  minds  improve 
merely  with  experience.  Experience  must  be  gath- 
ered in,  and  must  be  embodied  into  judgment.  There 
is  absolutely  no  way  of  estimating  what  the  average 
need  in  this  line  would  be,  it  varies  so  much  with  the 
temperament  of  the  man.  Again,  it  would  usually  be 
a  thing  that  the  man  himself  was  responsible  for,  and 
not  the  management,  certainly  not  the  management 
in  any  impersonal  sense.  Some  one  rnan  over  an  in- 
dividual worker  might  be  largely  responsible  for  im- 
proving him  intellectually.  If  this  were  so,  it  would 
be  because  of  the  temperament  of  the  over-man,  or 
because  of  his  friendly  desire  to  impart  a  mental 
stimulus;  seldom,  if  ever,  because  the  management 
provided  for  its  being  imparted.  Thus,  there  was 
absolutely  no  way  of  predicting  that  wider  or  deeper 


314  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

interest,   or  that   increased  mental  capacity,   would 
take  place. 

Moral  Development  Doubtful. —  As  for  moral  de- 
velopment, in  the  average  Traditional  Management  it 
was  not  only  not  provided  for,  but  rather  doubtful. 
A  man  had  very  little  chance  to  develop  real,  per- 
sonal responsibilities,  in  that  there  was  always  some 
one  over  him  who  was  watching  him,  who  disciplined 
him  and  corrected  him,  who  handed  in  the  reports 
for  him,  with  the  result  that  he  was  in  a  very  slight 
sense  a  free  agent.  Only  men  higher  up,  the  fore- 
men and  the  superintendents  could  obtain  real  de- 
velopment from  personal  responsibilities.  Neither 
was  there  much  development  of  responsibility  for 
others,  in  the  sense  of  being  responsible  for  personal 
development  of  others.  Having  no  accurate  stand- 
ards to  judge  by,  there  was  little  or  no  possibility 
of  appreciation  of  the  relative  standing  of  the  men, 
either  by  the  individual  of  himself,  or  by  others  of 
his  ability.  The  man  could  be  admired  for  his 
strength,  or  his  skill,  but  not  for  his  real  efficiency, 
as  measured  in  any  satisfactory  way.  The  manage- 
ment taught  self-control  in  the  most  rudimentary  way, 
or  not  at  all.  There  was  no  distinct  goal  for  the  aver- 
age man,  neither  was  there  any  distinct  way  to  ar- 
rive at  such  a  goal;  It  was  simply  a  case,  with  the 
man  lower  down,  of  making  good  for  any  one  day 
and  getting  that  day's  pay.  In  the  more  enlightened 
forms  of  Traditional  Management,  a  chance  for  pro- 
motion was  always  fairly  sure,  but  the  moment  that 
the  line  of  promotion  became  assured,  we  may  say 
that  Traditional  Management  had  really  ceased,  and 


WELFARE  315 

some  form  of  Transitory  Management  was  in  opera- 
tion. 

"  Square  Deal "  Lacking. —  Perhaps  the  worst  lack 
under  Traditional  Management  is  the  lack  of  the 
"  square  deal."  In  the  first  place,  even  the  most  ef- 
ficient worker  under  this  form  of  management  was 
not  sure  of  his  place.  This  not  only  meant  worry 
on  his  part,  which  distracted  his  attention  from  what 
he  did,  but  meant  a  wrong  attitude  all  along  the  line. 
He  had  absolutely  no  way  of  knowing  that,  even 
though  he  did  his  best,  the  man  over  him,  in  anger,  or 
because  of  some  entirely  ulterior  thing,  might  not 
discharge  him,  put  him  in  a  lower  position.  So  also 
the  custom  of  spying,  the  only  sort  of  inspection 
recognized  under  Traditional  Management  of  the 
most  elementary  form,  led  to  a  feeling  on  the  men's 
part  that  they  were  being  constantly  watched  on  the 
sly,  and  to  an  inability  to  concentrate.  This  brought 
about  an  inability  to  feel  really  honest,  for  being  con- 
stantly under  suspicion  is  enough  to  poison  even  one's 
own  opinion  of  one's  integrity.  Again,  being  at  the 
beck  and  call  of  a  prejudiced  foreman  who  was  all- 
powerful,  and  having  no  assured  protection  from  the 
whims  of  such  a  man,  the  worker  was  obliged,  prac- 
tically for  self-protection,  to  try  to  conciliate  the  fore- 
men by  methods  of  assuming  merits  that  are  obvious, 
on  the  surface.  He  ingratiates  himself  in  the  favor 
of  the  foreman  in  that  way  best  adapted  to  the  pe- 
culiarities of  the  character  of  the  foreman,  sometimes 
joining  societies,  or  the  church  of  the  foreman,  some- 
times helping  him  elect  some  political  candidate  or. 
relative;  at  other  times,  by  the  more  direct  method 


3i6  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  buying  drinks,  or  taking  up  a  subscription  for  pre- 
senting the  foreman  with  a  gold  watch,  "  in  apprecia- 
tion of  his  fairness  to  all;  "  sometimes  by  consistently 
losing  at  cards  or  other  games  of  chance.  When  it 
is  considered  that  this  same  foreman  was  probably, 
at  the  time,  enjoying  a  brutal  feeling  of  power,  it  is 
no  wonder  that  no  sense  of  confidence  of  the  "  square 
deal "  could  develop.  There  are  countless  ways  that 
the  brutal  enjoyment  of  power  could  be  exercised  by 
the  man  in  a  foreman's  position.  As  has  already  been 
said,  some  men  prefer  promotion  to  a  position  of 
power  more  than  anything  else.  Nearly  all  desire 
promotion  to  power  for  the  extra  money  that  it  brings, 
and  occasionally,  a  man  will  be  found  who  loves  the 
power,  although  unconsciously,  for  the  pleasure  he 
obtains  in  lording  over  other  human  beings.  This 
quality  is  present  more  or  less  in  all  human  beings. 
It  is  particularly  strong  in  the  savage,  who  likes  to 
torture  captured  human  beings  and  animals,  and  per- 
haps the  greatest  test  for  high  qualifications  of  char- 
acter and  gentleness  is  that  of  having  power  over 
other  human  beings  without  unnecessarily  accenting 
the  difference  in  the  situation.  Under  Military  Man- 
agement, there  is  practically  no  limit  to  this  power, 
the  management  being  satisfied  if  the  foreman  gets 
the  work  out  of  the  men,  and  the  men  having  practi- 
cally no  one  to  appeal  to,  and  being  obliged  to  receive 
their  punishment  always  from  the  hands  of  a  preju- 
diced party. 

Little  Possibility  of  Development  of  Will. —  Being 
under  such  influence  as  this,  there  is  little  or  no  pos- 
sibility of  the  development  of  an  intelligent  will.     The 


WELFARE  317 

"  will  to  do  "  becomes  stunted,  unless  the  pay  is  large 
enough  to  lead  the  man  to  be  willing  to  undergo 
abuses  in  order  to  get  the  money.  There  is  nothing, 
moreover,  in  the  aspect  of  the  management  itself 
to  lead  the  man  to  have  a  feeling  of  confidence  either 
in  himself,  or  in  the  management,  and  to  have  that 
moral  poise  which  will  make  him  wish  to  advance. 

Real  Capacity  Not  Increased. —  With  the  likelihood 
of  suspicion,  hate  and  jealousy  arising,  and  with  con- 
stant preparations  for  conflict,  of  which  the  average 
union  and  employers'  association  is  the  embodiment, 
naturally,  real  capacity  is  not  increased,  but  is  rather 
decreased,  under  this  form  of  management,  and  we 
may  ascribe  this  to  three  faults : 

First,  to  lack  of  recognition  of  individuality, —  men 
are  handled  mostly  as  gangs,  and  personality  is  sunk. 

Second,  to  lack  of  standardization,  and  to  lack  of 
time  study,  that  fundamental  of  all  standardization, 
which  leads  to  absolute  inability  to  make  a  measured, 
and  therefore  scientific  judgment,  and 

Third,  to  the  lack  of  teaching;  to  the  lack  of  all  con- 
structiveness. 

These  three  lacks,  then,  constitute  a  strong  reason 
why  Traditional  Management  does  not  add  to  the 
welfare  of  the  men. 

Little  Systematized  Welfare  Work  Under  Tradi- 
tional Management. —  As  for  welfare  work, —  that  is, 
work  which  the  employers  themselves  plan  to  bene- 
fit the  men,  if  under  such  work  be  included  ^limely 
impulses  of  the  management  for  the  men,  and  the  car- 
rying of  these  out  in  a  more  or  less  systematic  way, 
it  will  be  true  to  say  that  such  welfare  work  has  ex- 


3i8  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

isted  in  all  times,  and  under  all  forms  of  management. 
The  kind-hearted  man  will  show  his  kind  heart  wher- 
ever he  is,  but  it  is  likewise  true  to  say  that  little 
systematic  beneficial  work  is  done  under  what  we  have 
defined  as  Traditional  Management. 

Definite  Statements  as  to  Welfare  Under  Trans- 
itory Management  Difficult  To  Make. —  It  is  almost 
impossible  to  give  any  statement  as  to  the  general 
welfare  of  workers  under  Transitory  Management, 
because,  from  the  very  nature  of  the  case.  Transitory 
Management  is  constantly  changing.  In  the  discus- 
sion of  the  various  chapters,  and  in  showing  how  in- 
dividuality, functionalization,  measurement,  and  so 
on,  were  introduced,  and  the  psychological  effect  upon 
the  men  of  their  being  introduced,  welfare  was  more 
or  less  unsystematically  considered.  In  turning  to 
the  discussion  under  Scientific  Management  and  show- 
ing how  welfare  is  the  result  of  Scientific  Manage- 
ment and  is  incorporated  in  it,  much  as  to  its  growth 
will  be  included. 

Welfare  Work  Under  Transitory  Management  Is 
Usually  Commendable. —  As  to  the  welfare  work 
under  Transitory  Management,  much  could  be  said, 
and  much  has  been  said  and  written.  Typical  Wel- 
fare Work  under  Transitory  Management  deserves 
nothing  but  praise.  It  is  the  result  of  the  dedica- 
tion of  many  beautiful  lives  to  a  beautiful  cause.  It 
consists  of  such  work  as  building  rest  rooms  for  the 
employes,  in  providing  for  amusements,  in  providing 
for  better  working  conditions,  in  helping  to  better 
living  conditions,  in  providing  for  some  sort  of  a  wel- 
fare worker  who  can  talk  with  the  employes  and  bene- 


WELFARE  319 

fit  them  in  every  way,  including  being  their  repre- 
sentative in  speaking  with  the  management. 

An  Underlying  Flaw  Is  Apparent. —  There  can  be 
no  doubt  that  an  enormous  quantity  of  good  has  been 
done  by  this  welfare  work,  both  positively,  to  the 
employes  themselves,  and  indirectly,  to  the  manage- 
ment, through  fostering  a  kinder  feeling.  There  is, 
however,  a  flaw  to  be  found  in  the  underlying  prin- 
ciples of  this  welfare  work  as  introduced  in  Transitory 
Management,  and  that  is  that  it  takes  on  more  or  less 
the  aspect  of  a  charity,  and  is  so  regarded  both  by 
the  employes  and  by  the  employer.  The  employer, 
naturally,  prides  himself  more  or  less  upon  doing 
something  which  is  good,  and  the  employe  naturally 
resents  more  or  less  having  something  given  to 
him  as  a  sort  of  charity  which  he  feels  his  by 
right. 

Its  Effect  Is  Detrimental. —  The  psychological  sig- 
nificance of  this  is  very  great.  The  employer,  feel- 
ing that  he  has  bestowed  a  gift,  is,  naturally,  rather 
chagrined  to  find  it  is  received  either  as  a  right,  or 
with  a  feeling  of  resentment.  Therefore,  he  is  often 
led  to  decrease  what  he  might  otherwise  do,  for  it  is 
only  an  unusual  and  a  very  high  type  of  mind  that 
can  be  satisfied  simply  with  the  doing  of  the  good 
act,  without  the  return  of  gratitude.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  employe,  if  he  be  a  man  of  pride,  may  re- 
sent charity  even  in  such  a  general  form  as  this,  and 
may,  with  an  element  of  rightness,  prefer  that  the 
money  to  be  expended  be  put  into  his  pay  envelope, 
instead.  If  it  is  simply  a  case  of  better  working  con- 
ditions, something  that  improves  him  as  an  efficient 


320  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

worker  for  the  management,  he  will  feel  that  this 
welfare  work  is  in  no  sense  something  which  he  re- 
ceives as  a  gift,  but  rather  something  which  is  his 
right,  and  which  benefits  the  employer  exactly  as 
much,  if  not  more  than  it  benefits  him. 

Welfare  Work  Not  Self-perpetuating. —  Another 
fault  which  can  be  found  with  the  actual  administra- 
tion of  the  welfare  work,  is  the  fact  that  it  often  dis- 
regards one  of  the  fundamental  principles  of  Scien- 
tific Management,  in  that  the  welfare  workers  them- 
selve  do  not  train  enough  people  to  follow  in  their 
footsteps,  and  thus  make  welfare  self-perpetuating. 

In  one  case  which  the  writer  has  in  mind,  a  noble 
woman  is  devoting  her  life  to  the  welfare  of  a  body 
of  employes  in  an  industry  which  greatly  requires  such 
work.  The  work  which  she  is  doing  is  undoubtedly 
benefiting  these  people  in  every  aspect,  not  only  of 
their  business  but  of  their  home  lives,  but  it  is  also 
true  that  should  she  be  obliged  to  give  up  the  work, 
or  be  suddenly  called  away,  the  work  would  practi- 
cally fall  to  pieces.  It  is  built  up  upon  her  personality, 
and,  wonderful  as  it  is,  its  basis  must  be  recognized 
as  unscientific  and  temporary. 

Scientific  Provision  for  Welfare  Under  Scientific 
Management. —  Under  Scientific  Manageme'nt  gen- 
eral welfare  is  provided  for  by :  — 

The  effect  that  the  work  has  on  physical  improve- 
ment. This  we  shall  discuss  under  three  head- 
ings— 

1.  the  regularity  of  the  work. 

2.  habits. 

3.  physical  development. 


WELFARE  3ax 

As  for  the  regularity  of  the  work  —  we  have 

(a)  The  apportionment  of  the  work  and  the  rest. 
Under  Scientific  Management,  work  time 
and  rest  time  are  scientifically  apportioned. 
This  means  that  the  man  is  able  to  come  to 
each  task  with  the  same  amount  of  strength, 
and  that  from  his  work  he  gains  habits  of 
regularity. 

(b)  The  laying  out  of  the  work.  The  standards 
upon  which  the  instruction  cards  are  based, 
and  the  method  of  preparing  them,  assure 
regularity. 

(c)  The  manner  of  performing  the  work.  Every 
time  that  identical  work  is  done,  it  is  done  in 
an  identical  manner. 

The  resulting  regularity  has  an  excellent  effect  upon 
the  physical  welfare  of  the  worker. 

2.  Habits,  under  Scientific  Management, 

(a)  are  prescribed  by  standards.  The  various 
physical  habits  of  the  man,  the  motions  that 
are  used,  having  all  been  timed  and  then 
standardized,  the  worker  acquires  physical 
habits  that  are  fixed. 

(b)  are  taught;^  therefore  they  are  not  remote 
but  come  actually  and  promptly  into  the  con- 
sciousness and  into  the  action  of  the  worker. 

(c)  are  retained,  because  they  are  standard 
habits  and  because  the  rewards  which  are 
given  for  using  them  make  it  an  object  to 
the  worker  to  retain  them. 

(d)  Are   reenforced  by  individuality  and   func- 
iH.  L.  Gantt,  Work,  Wages  and  Promts,  p.  115,  p.  121. 


322     THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

tionalization ;  that  is  to  say,  the  worker  is 
considered  as  an  individual,  and  his  possi- 
bilities are  studied,  before  he  is  put  into  the 
work;  therefore,  his  own  individuality  and 
his  own  particular  function  naturally  reen- 
force  those  habits  which  he  is  taught  to  form. 
These  habits,  being  scientifically  derived, 
add  to  physical  improvement. 
3.  Physical  development 

(a)  is  fostered  through  the  play  element,  has 
been  scientifically  studied,  and  is  utilized 
as  far  as  possible;  the  same  is  true  of  the 
love  of  work,  which  is  reenforced  by  the  fact 
that  the  man  has  been  placed  where  he  will 
have  the  most  love  for  his  work. 

(b)  is  insured  by  the  love  of  contest,  which  is 
provided  for  not  only  by  contest  with  others, 
but  by  the  constant  contest  of  the  worker 
with  his  own  previous  records.  When  he 
does  exceed  these  records  he  utilizes  powers 
which  it  is  for  his  good  physically,  as  well 
as  otherwise,  to  utilize. 

Results  of  Physical  Improvement. —  This  regular- 
ity, good  habits,  and  physical  development,  result  in 
good  health,  increased  strength  and  a  better  appear- 
ance. To  these  three  results  all  scientific  managers 
testify.  An  excellent  example  of  this  is  found  in  Mr. 
Gantt's  "  Work,  Wages  and  Profits,"  where  the  in- 
creased health,  the  better  color  and  the  better  general 
appearance  of.  the  workers  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment is  commented  on  as  well  as  the  fact  that  they 


WELFARE  323 

are  inspired  by  their  habits  to  dress  themselves  better 
and  in  every  way  to  become  of  a  higher  type.^ 

Mental  Development. —  Welfare  under  Scientific 
Management  is  provided  for  by  Mental  Development. 
This  we  may  discuss  under  habits,  and  under  general 
mental  development. 

1.  As  for  habits  we  must  consider 

(a)  Habits  of  attention.  Under  Scientific  Man- 
agement, as  we  have  shown,  attention  must 
become  a  habit.  Only  when  it  does  become 
a  habit,  can  the  work  required  be  properly 
performed,  and  the  reward  received.  As 
only  those  who  show  themselves  capable  of 
really  receiving  the  reward  are  considered 
to  be  properly  placed,  ultimately  all  who  re- 
main at  work  under  Scientific  Management 
must  attain  this  habit  of  attention. 

(b)  Habit  of  method  of  attack.  This  not  only 
enables  the  worker  to  do  the  things  that  he 
is  assigned  satisfactorily,  but  also  has  the 
broadening  effect  of  teaching  him  how  to 
do  other  things,  i.  e.,  showing  him  the 
"  how "  of  doing  things,  and  giving  him 
standards  which  are  the  outcome  of  mental 
habits,  and  by  which  he  learns  to  measure. 

2.  General  mental  development  is  provided  for  by 
the  experience  which  the  worker  gets  not  only  in  the 
general  way  in  which  all  who  work  must  give  experi- 
ence, but  in  the  set  way  provided  for  by  Scientific 
Management.     This  is   so  presented  to  the  worker 

2  Pp.  171-172. 


324  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

that  it  becomes  actually  usable  at  once.  This  not  only 
allows  him  to  judge  others,  but  provides  for  self- 
knowledge,  which  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  of  all 
of  the  outcomes  of  Scientific  Management.  He  be- 
comes mentally  capable  of  estimating  his  own  powers 
and  predicting  what  he  himself  is  capable  of  doing. 
The  outcome  of  this  mental  development  is 

(a)  wider  interest. 

(b)  deeper  interest. 

(c)  increased  mental  capabilities. 

The  better  method  of  attack  would  necessarily  pro- 
vide for  wider  interest.  The  fact  that  any  subject 
taken  up  is  in  its  ultimate  final  unit  form,  would  cer- 
tainly lead  to  deeper  interest ;  and  the  exercise  of  these 
two  faculties  leads  to  increased  mental  capabilities. 

Moral  Development. —  Moral  development  under 
Scientific  Management  results  from  the  provisions 
made  for  cultivating  — 

1.  personal  responsibility. 

2.  responsibility  for  others. 

3.  appreciation  of  standing. 

4.  self-control. 

5.  "  squareness." 

I.  Personal  responsibility  is  developed  by 

(a)  Individual  recognition.  When  the  worker 
was  considered  merely  as  one  of  a  gang,  it 
was  very  easy  for  him  to  shift  responsibili- 
ties upon  others.  When  he  knows  that  he 
is  regarded  by  the  management,  and  by  his 
mates,  as  an  individual,  that  what  he  does 
will  show  up  in  an  individual  record,  and  will 
receive    individual    reward    or    punishment, 


WELFARE  32s 

necessarily  personal  responsibility  is  devel- 
oped. 
Moreover,  this  individual  recognition  is  brought  to 
his  mind  by  his  being  expected  to  fill  out  his  own  in- 
struction card.     In  this  way,  his  personal  responsi- 
bility is  specifically  brought  home  to  him. 

(b)  The  appreciation  which  comes  under  Scien- 
tific Management.     This  appreciation  takes 
the  form  of  reward  and  promotion,  and  of  the 
regard  of  his  fellow-workers;  therefore,  be- 
ing a  growing  thing,  as  it  is  under  Scientific 
Management,  it  insures  that  his  personal  re- 
sponsibility shall  also  be  a  growing  thing, 
and  become  greater  the  longer  he  works  un- 
der Scientific  Management. 
2.  Responsibility  for  others  is  provided  for  by  the 
inter-relation   of   all   functions.     It   is   not   necessary 
that  all  workers  under  Scientific  Management  should 
understand  all  about  it.     However,  many  do  under- 
stand, and  the  more  that  they  do  understand,  the  more 
they  realize  that  everybody  working  under  Scientific 
Management  is  more  or  less  dependent  upon  every- 
body else.     Every  worker  must  feel  this,   more   or 
less,  when  he  realizes  that  there  are  eight  functional 
bosses  over  him,  who  are  closely  related  to  him,  on 
whom  he  is   dependent,   and  who  are  more   or  less 
dependent  upon  him.     The  very  fact  that  the  plan- 
ning is  separated  from  the  performing,  means  that 
more  men  are  directly  interested  in  any  one  piece  of 
work;  in  fact,   that  every  individual  piece  of  work 
that  is  done  is  in  some  way  a  bond  between  a  great 
number  of  men,  some  of  whom  are  planning  and  some 


326  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

of  whom  are  performing  it.  This  responsibility  for 
others  is  made  even  more  close  in  the  dependent 
bonuses  which  are  a  part  of  Scientific  Management, 
a  man's  pay  being  dependent  upon  the  work  of  those 
who  are  working  under  him.  Certainly,  nothing 
could  bring  the  fact  more  closely  to  the  attention 
of  each  and  every  worker  under  this  system,  than 
associating  it  with  the  pay  envelope. 

3.  Appreciation  of  standing  is  fostered  by 

(a)  individual  records.  Through  these  the  indi- 
vidual himself  knows  what  he  has  done,  his 
fellows  know,  and  the  management  knows. 

(b)  comparative  records,  which  show  even  those 
who  might  not  make  the  comparison,  ex- 
actly how  each  worker  stands,  with  relation 
to  his  mates,  or  with  relation  to  his  past 
records. 

This  appreciation  of  standing  is  well  exemplified 
in  the  happy  phrasing  of  Mr.  Gantt  — "  There  is  in 
every  workroom  a  fashion,  or  habit  of  work,  and  the 
new  worker  follows  that  fashion,  for  it  isn't  respect- 
able not  to.  The  man  or  woman  who  ignores  fashion 
does  not  get  much  pleasure  from  associating  with 
those  that  follow  it,  and  the  new  member  conse- 
quently tries  to  fall  in  with  the  sentiment  of  the 
community.^  Our  chart  shows  that  the  stronger  the 
sentiment  in  favor  of  industry  is,  the  harder  the  new 
member  tries  and  the  sooner  he  succeeds." 

4.  Self-control  is  developed  by 

(a)   the  habits  of  inhibition  fostered  by  Scien- 
tific Management, —  that  is  to  say,  when  the 
sR.  L.  Gantt,  Work,  Wages  and  Profits,  pp,  154-155. 


WELFARE  327 

right  habits   are   formed,   necessarily   many- 
wrong  habits  are  eHminated.     It  becomes  a 
part  of  Scientific  Management  to  inhibit  all 
inattention  and  wrong  habits,  and  to  con- 
centrate upon  the  things  desired.     This  is 
further  aided  by 
(b)  the  distinct  goal  and  the  distinct  task  which 
Scientific   Management   gives,   which   allow 
the  man  to  hold  himself  well  in  control,  to 
keep  his  poise  and  to  advance  steadily. 
5.  "  Squareness."     This  squareness  is  exemplified 
first  of  all  by  the  attitude  of  the  management.     It 
provides,   in  every  way,   that  the  men  are   given  a 
"  square  deal,"  in  that  the  tasks  assigned  are  of  the 
proper  size,  and  that  the  reward  that  is  given  is  of 
the  proper  dimensions,  and  is  assured.     This  has  al- 
ready been  shown  to  be  exemplified  in  many  char- 
acteristics of  Scientific  Management,  and  more  espe- 
cially in  the  inspection  and  in  the  disciplining. 

Moral  Development  Results  in  Contentment, 
Brotherhood  and  the  "Will  To  Do."— The  three  re- 
sults of  this  moral  development  are 

1.  contentment 

2.  brotherhood 

3.  a  "  will  to  do." 

1.  Contentment  is  the  outgrowth  of  the  personal 
responsibility,  the  appreciation  of  standing,  and  the 
general  "  squareness  "  of  the  entire  plan  of  Scientific 
Management. 

2.  The  idea  of  brotherhood  is  fostered  particularly 
through  the  responsibility  for  others,  through  the 
feeling  that  grows  up  that  each  man  is  dependent 


328  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

upon  all  others,  and  that  it  is  necessary  for  every  man 
to  train  up  another  man  to  take  his  place  before  he 
can  be  advanced.  Thus  it  comes  about  that  the  old 
caste  life,  which  so  often  grew  up  under  Traditional 
Management,  becomes  abolished,  and  there  ensues  a 
feeling  that  it  is  possible  for  any  man  to  grow  up  into 
any  other  man's  place.  The  tug-of-war  attitude  of 
the  management  and  men  is  transformed  into  the  atti- 
tude of  a  band  of  soldiers  scaling  a  wall.  Not  only 
is  the  worker  pulled  up,  but  he  is  also  forced  up 
from  the  bottom.* 

3.  The  "  will  to  do  "  is  so  fostered  by  Scientific 
Management  that  not  only  is  the  worker  given  every 
incentive,  but  he,  personally,  becomes  inspired  with 
this  great  desire  for  activity,  which  is  after  all  the 
best  and  finest  thing  that  any  system  of  work  can 
give  to  him. 

Interrelation  of  Physical,  Mental  and  Moral  De- 
velopment.—  As  to  the  interrelation  of  physical, 
mental  and  moral  development,  it  must  never  be  for- 
gotten that  the  mind  and  the  body  must  be  studied 
together,^  and  that  this  is  particularly  true  in  con- 
sidering the  mind  in  management.^  For  the  best 
results  of  the  mind,  the  body  must  be  cared  for,  and 
provided  for,  fully  as  much  as  must  the  mind,  or  the 
best  results  from  the  mind  will  not,  and  cannot,  be 
obtained. 

*  F.  W.  Taylor,  Shop  Management,  para.  170,  Harper  Ed.,  p.  '76. 
s  William  James,  Psychology,  Advanced  Course,  Vol.  II,  p.  372. 

*  See  remarkable  work  of  Dr.  A.  Imbert,  Evaluation  de  la 
Capacite  de  Travail  d'un  Ouvrier  Avant  et  Apres  un  Accident;  Les 
Methodes  du  Laboratoire  appliquees  a  I'Etude  directe  et  pratique 
des  Questions  ouvrieres. 


WELFARE  329 

Successful  management  must  consider  the  results  of 
all  mental  states  upon  the  health,  happiness  and  pros- 
perity of  the  worker,  and  the  quality,  quantity  and  cost 
of  the  output.  That  is  to  say,  unless  the  mind  is 
kept  in  the  right  state,  with  the  elimination  of  worry, 
the  body  cannot  do  its  best  work,  and,  in  the  same 
way,  unless  the  body  is  kept  up  to  the  proper  stand- 
ard, the  mind  cannot  develop.  Therefore,  a  really 
good  system  of  management  must  consider  not  only 
these  things  separately,  but  in  their  interrelation, — 
and  this  Scientific  Management  does. 

Result  of  Physical,  Mental  and  Moral  Development 
Is  Increased  Capacity. —  The  ultimate  result  of  all 
this  physical  improvement,  mental  development  and 
moral  development  is  increased  capacity,  increased 
capacity  not  only  for  work,  but  for  health,  and  for 
life  in  general. 

Welfare  Work  an  Integral  Part  o£  Scientific  Man- 
agement.—  Strictly  speaking,  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement, there  should  be  no  necessity  for  a  special 
department  of  Welfare  Work.  It  should  be  so  in- 
corporated in  Scientific  Management  that  it  is  not  to 
be  distinguished.  Here  the  men  are  looked  out  for 
in  such  a  way  under  the  operation  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement itself  that  there  is  no  necessity  for  a  special 
welfare  worker.  This  is  not  to  say  that  the  value  of 
personality  will  disappear  under  Scientific  Manage- 
ment, and  that  it  may  not  be  necessary  in  some  cases 
to  provide  for  nurses,  for  physical  directors,  and  for 
advisers.  It  will,  however,  be  understood  that  the 
entire  footing  of  these  people  is  changed  under  Scien- 
tific   Management.     It    is    realized    under    Scientific 


330  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

Management  that  these  people,  and  their  work,  bene- 
fit the  employers  as  much  as  the  employes.  They 
must  go  on  the  regular  payroll  as  a  part  of  the  effi- 
ciency equipment.  The  workers  must  understand 
that  there  is  absolutely  no  feeling  of  charity,  or  of 
gift,  in  having  them ;  that  they  add  to  the  perf ectness 
of  the  entire  establishment. 

SUMMARY 

Results  of  Welfare  to  the  Work. —  Because  of  Wel- 
fare Work,  of  whatever  type,  more  and  better  work 
is  accomplished,  with  only  such  expenditure  of  effort 
as  is  beneficial  to  the  worker.  Not  only  does  the 
amount  of  work  done  increase,  but  it  also  tends  to 
become  constant,  after  it  has  reached  its  standard 
expected  volume. 

Result  of  Welfare  Work  to  the  Worker. —  This  de- 
scription of  welfare  of  the  men  under  Scientific  Man- 
agement, in  every  sense  of  the  word  welfare,  has 
been  very  poor  and  incomplete  if  from  it  the  reader 
has  not  deduced  the  fact  that  Scientific  Management 
lenablesbhe  worker  not  only  to  lead  a  fuller  life  in 
his  work,  but  also  outside  his  work;  llmt  it  furnishes 
him  hours  enough  free  from  the  work  to  develop  such 
things  as  the  work  cannot  develop ;  #Mt  it  furnishes 
him  with  health  and  interest  enough  to  go  into  his 
leisure  hours  with  a  power  to  develop  himself  there; 
tiMft  it  furnishes  him  with  a  broader  outlook,  and, 
best  of  all,  with  a  capacity  of  judging  for  himself 
what  he  needs  most  to  getj  In  other  words,  if  Scien- 
tific Management  is  what  it  claims  to  be,  it  leads  to 
the  development  of  a  fuller  life  in  every  sense  of  the 


WELFARE  331 

word,  enabling  the  man  to  become  a  better  individual 
in  himself,  and  a  better  member  of  his  community. 
If  it  does  not  do  this  it  is  not  truly  Scientific  Manage- 
ment. Miss  Edith  Wyatt  has  said,  very  beautifully, 
at  the  close  of  her  book,  "  Making  Both  Ends 
Meet "  '^ :  "  No  finer  dream  was  ever  dreamed  than 
that  the  industry  by  which  the  nation  lives,  should 
be  so  managed  as  to  secure  for  the  men  and  women 
engaged  in  it  their  real  prosperity,  their  best  use  of 
their  highest  powers.  How  far  Scientific  Manage- 
ment will  go  toward  realizing  the  magnificent  dream 
in  the  future,  will  be  determined  by  the  greatness  of 
spirit  and  the  executive  genius  with  which  its  prin- 
ciples are  sustained  by  all  the  people  interested  in 
its  inauguration,  the  employers,  the  workers  and  the 
engineers." 

We  wish  to  modify  the  word  "  dream  "  to  the  word 
"  plan."  The  plan  of  Scientific  Management  is  right, 
and,  as  Miss  Wyatt  says,  is  but  waiting  for  us  to 
fulfill  the  details  that  are  laid  out  before  us. 

Conclusion. —  The  results  thus  far  attained  by 
Scientific  Management  justify  a  prediction  as  to  its 
future.     It  will  accomplish  two  great  works. 

1.  It  will  educate  the  worker  to  the  point  where 
workers  will  be  fitted  to  work,  and  to  live. 

2.  It  will  aid  the  cause  of  Industrial  Peace. 

It  will  put  the  great  power  of  knowledge  into  every 
man's  hands.  This  it  must  do,  as  it  is  founded  on  co- 
operation, and  this  cooperation  demands  that  all  shall 
know  and  shall  be  taught. 

With  this  knowledge  will  come  ability  to  under- 

'  Clark  and  Wyatt,  Macmillan,  pp.  269-270. 


332  THE  PSYCHOLOGY  OF  MANAGEMENT 

stand  the  rights  of  others  as  well  as  one's  own. 
"  To  know  all  is  to  pardon  all." 

Necessity  for  cooperation,  and  trained  minds :  — 
These  two  can  but  lead  to  elimination  of  that  most 
wasteful  of  all  warfare  —  Industrial  Warfare.  Such 
will  be  the  future  of  Scientific  Management, — 
whether  it  win  universal  approval,  universal  disap- 
proval, or  half-hearted  advocacy  to-day. 

When  the  day  shall  come  that  the  ultimate  benefits 
of  Scientific  Management  are  realized  and  enjoyed, 
depends  on  both  the  managers  and  the  workers  of  the 
country;  but,  in  the  last  analysis,  the  greatest  power 
towards  hastening  the  day  lies  in  the  hands  of  the 
workers. 

To  them  Scientific  Management  would  desire  to 
appeal  as  a  road  up  and  out  from  industrial  monotony 
and  industrial  turmoil.  There  are  many  roads  that 
lead  to  progress.  This  road  leads  straightest  and 
surest, —  and  we  can  but  hope  that  the  workers  of 
all  lands,  and  of  our  land  in  particular,  will  not  wait 
till  necessity  drives,  but  will  lead  the  way  to  that 
true  "  Brotherhood  "  which  may  some  day  come  to 
be. 


Index 


Index 


Accidents,  prevention  by  meas- 
uring devices,  114. 
prevention  by  standardization, 
180. 
"All    Round"    Men    utilized   by 

scientific   management,  87. 
Ambition,  use  of,  258. 
American   Journal  of   Physiolo- 
gy—1904,   III. 
Analysis,    amount    governed    by 
nature  of  work,  126. 
definition  of,  123. 
field  of  psychology  in,  128. 
training  should  be  provided  in 

schools,   129. 
worker      should      understand 
process,    129. 
Analysis  and  Synthesis,  cost  the 
determining  factor,  127. 
effect  on  work  of,  138. 
effect  on  worker  of,  138. 
place    in    traditional    manage- 
ment,   124. 
place    in    transitory    manage- 
ment,   125. 
under    scientific    management, 

I2S. 

use  by  psychology,  123. 
Analysist,  duties  of,  126. 

qualifications  of,  128. 
Animals,       standardization       of 

work  with,  170. 
Appreciation,      under      scientific 

management,  325. 
Apprentices,   teaching  of,  262. 
Approbation,     as     an    incentive, 

304. 
Athletic  Contests,  description  of, 

34. 


Attention,  forming  habit  of,  240. 
gaining  of,  178. 
held  by  bulletin  board,  241. 
relation  to  fatigue,  160. 
relation    to    instruction    card, 

241.  X 

relation  to  placing  of  workers, 
161. 

Babbage,  Charles — "Economy  of 
Manufacturers,"   2,    76,    179. 

Earth,  C.  G.— "A.  S.  M.  E. 
Paper  loio,"  78,  174. 

Blan,  L.  B. — '"Special  Study  of 
Incidence  of  Retardation," 
29. 

Body,  relation  of  mind  to,  48, 
160. 

Bonus,  definition  of,  288. 
investigation  of  loss  of,  301. 

Brashear,  John,  81. 

Breakdowns,  prevented  by  meas- 
uring devices,  114. 

Brotherhood,  coming  of,  332. 
under    scientific    management, 
328. 

Bulletin    Board,    aids    attention, 
241. 
benefit  of,  194. 

Calkins,  M.  W.— "A  First  Book 
in  Psychology,"  22,  53,  171. 

Card,  instruction,  44. 

Capacity,  increasing  of,  317,  329. 

Class,  relation  to  individual,  49. 

Clothing,  in  sports,  167. 
standards,  166. 

Constructiveness,  benefits  of, 
260. 


335 


336 


INDEX 


Contentment,      under     scientific 

management,  327, 
Cooke,   M.   L.— "Bulletin   No.   5 

Carnegie  Foundation,"  9,  86, 

94,  139- 

Cooperation,   necessity    for,    102, 
26s,  332. 
relation  to  incentives,  304. 

Cost,      determining      factor      in 
analysis   and   synthesis,    127. 

Curiosity,  under   scientific  man- 
agement, 255. 

Dana,     R.     T. — "Handbook     of 
Steam  Shovel  Work,"  iii. 

Dana       and       Saunders — "Rock 
Drilling,"   139. 

Day,  Charles-"Industrial  Plants," 
66. 

Day  Work,   description  of,  289. 

Decision    of    choice,    elimination 
of,   163. 

Demonstration,  value  of,  227. 

Development,  mental,  313,  323. 
moral,   324. 

Devices,  standard,  need  for,  164. 

Differential    Bonus,    description 
of,  300. 

Differential  Rate  Piece,  descrip- 
tion of,  298. 

Discharge,  avoidance  of,  306. 

Disciplinarian,  duties  of,  68,  70, 

Disciplining,  psychology  of,  71. 
under    scientific    management, 

70,  72. 
under  traditional  management, 
69. 

Dodge,  James  M.,  135. 

"Discussion  to  Paper  1 119  A. 
S.  M.  E.,"  131. 

Driver  management,  10. 

Efficiency,  controlling  factor  in, 

3- 
measured    by    time    and    mo- 
tion study,  115. 
securing  of,  3. 
Emulation,  use  of,  258. 
"Engineering,"     London,     Sept. 
15,  1911,  136. 


Equipment,  measured  by  motion 
study   and    time   study,    108. 
standardization  of,   163. 
Errors,  checking  of,  112. 
Exception       principle,       records 
made  on,  187, 
value  of,  188. 

Fatigue,  eliminating  of,   159. 
importance  of,  233. 
influence   of   distracted   atten- 
tion on,  160. 
relation  to  standards,   168. 
Fear,  treatment  of,  252. 
Fines,  use  of,  305. 
First    class    man,    definition   of, 

98,   152. 
Foreman,  duties  of,  55. 

duties    under    scientific    man- 
agement, 64. 
qualifications  of,  54,  55. 
Foremanship,   functionalized,  63. 
Functional  foreman,  as  teacher, 

224. 
Functional    foremanship,    teach- 
ing feature  of,  63,  64. 
Functionalization,    definition   of, 
52. 
effect  upon  work  of,  83. 
effect  upon  worker  of,  85. 
under    scientific    management, 

61,  81. 
under  traditional  management, 

54. 
under  transitory  management, 

61. 
use  by  psychology,  53. 
Functions,  basis  of  division  into, 
65. 
place  of  operation  of,  66. 

Gain-sharing,  definition  of,  293. 

objections  to,  294. 
Gang  boss,  duties  of,  73. 
Gang  instruction  card,   descrip- 
tion of,  45,  175- 
Gantt,    H.    L.— "A.    S.    M.    E. 
Paper  928,"  95,  i8i. 
"A.  S.  M.  E,  Paper  No.  1002," 
55. 


INDEX 


337 


"Work,   Wages   and    Profits," 

24,  84,  89,  93,  125. 
Gilbreth,      F.      B. — "Bricklaying 

System,"  130. 
"Cost    Reducing    System,"    8, 

35,  95,  127. 
"Motion  Study,"  4,  28,  134. 
Gillette,    H.    P.— "A.    S.    E.    C. 

Paper  No.  i,"  3,  iii. 
"Cost    Analysis    Engineering," 

55. 

Gillette  and  Dana — "Cost  Keep- 
ing and  Management  En- 
gineering," 3,  S3y  86. 

Given  man,  definition  of,  152. 

Going,  C.  B.— "Methods  of  the 
Sante  Fe,"  158.  _ 

Government,  duty  in  measure- 
ment of,  120. 

Habit,  importance  of,  234. 
methods   of   instilling,  236. 
relation  to  standards,  235. 
relation  to  teaching,  235. 
Habits,     necessity    of     forming, 
312. 
of   attention,   24. 
of  motions,  right,  238. 
standardizing  of,  164. 
under    scientific    management, 
321. 
Hathaway,  H.  K.— "Machinery," 

Nov.,   1906,  84. 
Holidays,     effectiveness    as    re- 
ward, 303. 

Idiosyncrasies,  emphasis  on,  50. 
lies,       George — "Inventors       at 

Work,"   17. 
Imagination,      under      scientific 

management,  248. 
Imitation,  use  of,  256. 
Improvement,  physical,  322. 
Incentives,  classes  of,  272. 

definition  of,  271. 

direct,  275. 

importance  of,  271. 

indirect,  272. 

individual,  46. 

relation  to  cooperation,  304. 

relation  to  interest,  242. 


Incentives,    relation    to    knowl- 
edge, 304. 

relation  to  standards,  140. 

result  on  work  of,  310. 

result  on  worker  of,  310. 

under    scientific    management, 
279. 
Individual,  as  unit,  50. 

differences  respected,  246. 

importance  of  study  of,  23. 

relation  to  class,  49. 
Individuality,  definition  of,  21. 

development  of,  50. 

psychological  emphasis  on,  22. 

recognition     under     scientific 
management,  27. 

recognition    under    transitory 
management,  26. 

relation    to    instruction    card, 
44. 

relation     to      standardization, 
149. 

relation  to  teaching,  46. 

result  upon  work,  46. 

result  upon  worker,  47. 

status  under  traditional  man- 
agement, 24. 
Industrial  engineering,  106. 
Intiustrial     peace,     relation     of 
scientific     management     to, 

331. 
Initiative,  records  of,   185. 
Initiative    and    Incentive    Man- 
agement, 10. 
Inspector,  duties  of,  75. 
Instruction  card,  as  teacher,  221. 

clerk,  duties  of,  67. 

contents  of,  154. 

definition   of,   153. 

educative  value  of,  156. 

gang,  45. 

'help  to  memory  of,  176. 

individuality  under,  44. 

language  of,  157.  _ 

relation  to  attention,  241. 

types   of,   154. 
Interest,    relation   to    incentives, 

242. 
Interim  management,  11. 
Invention,   fostered  by   compar- 
ing methods,  107. 


338 


INDEX 


Invention,    relation    to    scientific 
management,  136. 
under  standardization,  179. 

James,     William — "Psychology," 

7- 

"Psychology,  Briefer  Course," 
22. 
Job,  long  time,  provision  for,  83. 

short  time,   provision    for,  82. 
Journeymen,  teaching  of,  262. 
Judgment,  derivation  of,  250. 

result  of  teaching,  251. 

securing  of,  240. 

Kjiowledge,  as  an  incentive,  304. 
transferred      under      scientific 
management,  117. 

Ladd,  G.  T. — definition  of  psy- 
chology, 22. 

Le  Chatelier,  H. — "Discussion  to 
Paper  11 19,  A.  S.  M.  E.," 
124. 

Long  time  job,  provision  for,  83. 

Loyalty,  under  scientific  man- 
agement, 253. 

Man,  first  class  definition  of,  98, 

152. 
given,  definition  of,  152. 
standard,  definition  of,  152. 
Management,  change  in  meaning 

of,  8. 
definition  of,  6. 
driver,  10. 

good    foundation   of,   3. 
initiative  and  incentive,  10. 
interim,  11. 

Marquis  of  Queensbury,  10. 
military,  9. 
place  of  analysis  and  synthesis 

in,   124. 
place  to  start  study  of,  5. 
scientific,  12. 

successful,  definition  of,  3. 
teaching  of,  3. 
three    stages    of,    14. 
traditional,   definition   of,   8. 
traditional,     preferable     name 

for,  9,  II. 


transitory,  il. 
types  of,  8. 
ultimate,  12. 
value  of  study  of,  2,  4. 
Manufacturers,      duty      toward 

measurement,  122. 
Manual   training,   necessity    for, 

264. 
Marquis    of    Queensbury    man- 
agement, 10. 
Measurement,      cooperation      of 
worker  under,  116. 
definition  of,  90. 
duty    of    government   toward, 

120. 
effect  upon  worker  of,   114. 
elimination  of  waste  by,  115. 
importance     in     management, 

93- 
importance  in  psychology,  90. 
methods  in  psychology,  91. 
methods  under  scientific  man- 
agement, 105. 
necessity   for  training  in,   104. 
of  teaching  and  learning,  263. 
problems  in  management,  94. 
relation  to  task  of,  98. 
results  to  work  of,  113. 
selection  of  units,  iii, 
under    scientific    management, 

97. 
under  traditional  management, 

95. 
under  transitory  management, 
96. 
Measured     functional     manage- 
ment, 12. 
Measurer,  qualifications  of,  99. 
Measuring  devices,  prevent  acci- 
dents and  breakdowns,    114. 
Memory,     relation    to    scientific 

management,  245. 
Metcalfe,  Henry — "Cost  of  Man- 
ufactures,"   113,   140. 
Method    of    attack,    standardiza- 
tion of,  172. 
Methods,  benefits  of  comparison 
of,  107. 
introduction  of  new,  137. 
measurement  by  motion  study 
and  time  study,  106. 


INDEX 


339 


Micro-motion    study,     definition 
of,  io6. 
demands  cooperation,  103. 
Military  management,  9. 
Mind,   relation   of   body  to,   48, 

160. 
Mnemonic   symbols,    advantages 
of,  151. 
use  of,  247. 
Motion  cycles,  use  in  teaching, 

244. 
Motions,    habits    of    right,    238. 

teaching  of  right,  237. 
Motion  study,  aims  of,  no. 
definition  of,  106. 
measurement  by,  105. 
scope  of,   108. 
Miinsterburg,   Hugo — "American 
Problems,"    22,    30,    53,    go, 
112. 

Native  reactions,  use  of,  252, 
309. 

Object  lessons,  value  of,  226. 
Observation,  dangers  of  surrep- 
titious, 102. 
necessity  for  unbiased,  loi. 
Observed   worker,    qualifications 

of,  103. 
Observer,  qualifications  of,  99. 
relation   of   Vocational    Guid- 
ance Bureau,  loi. 
One-talent     men,      utilized     by 

scientific  management,  86. 
Oral    teaching,    advantages    of, 

241. 
Order  of  work  clerk,  duties  of, 

66. 
Outputs,   advantages   of   record- 
ing, 37. 
advantages   of   separating,   36. 
handling      under      traditional 

management,  25. 
relation  to  individuality,  33. 
Ownership,    use    of    feeling   of, 
259- 

Parkhurst,  F,  A. — "Applied 
Methods  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement," 181. 


Pay,  subdivisions  of,  288. 

use  of,  286. 
Performing,       separated       from 

planning,  61. 
Personality,  value  of,  255. 
Piece  work,  description  of,  290. 
Planning,  a  life  study,  76. 
an  epoch-making  example  of, 

78. 
detailed    done    by    all    under 

scientific  management,  80. 
hardship   to    worker    of    indi- 
vidual, 79. 
open  to  all  who  like  it,  80. 
separated  from  performing,  61. 
taken  from  all  who  dislike  it, 

80. 
wastefulness  of  individual,  79. 
Planning    department,    work   of, 

62. 
Pin  plan,  description  of,  194. 
Premium    plan,    description    of, 

.  29s.  . 
Pride,  stimulation  of,  259. 
Professional  standing  as  an'  in- 
centive, 305. 
Profit-sharing,     description     of, 
296. 
objections  to,  296. 
relation     to     scientific     man- 
agement, 297. 
Programme,  as  routing,   193. 
definition  of,  192. 
derived     from    record    under 

scientific  management,  203. 
relation  to  records,  196. 
result  to  work  and  worker  of, 

I9S. 
types   of,   197. 
under  traditional  management, 

192. 
under  transitory  management, 
193. 
Promotion,  provision  for  under 
scientific     management,     87, 
88. 
use  of,  286. 
Psychology,  aid  to  industries  by, 
233-. 
appreciation  of  scientific  man- 
agement by,  93. 


340 


INDEX 


Psychology,  definition  of,   i,  22. 

experimental  field  of,  30. 

relation  to  progress,  260. 

value   of   study  of,   i,  4. 
Psychology      of      management, 
conclusions  of,  18. 

definition  of,  i. 

description   and  outline  of,   i. 

importance  of,  i,  4,  15. 

outline  of  method  of,  18. 

plan  of  study  in,  15. 
Pugnacity,  usefulness  of,  259. 
Punishment,  avoidance  of,  308. 

classes  of,  305. 

definition  of,  273. 

nature  of,  274. 

under  traditional  management, 
277. 

Quality,   maintenance  of,   238. 
standardization  of,   171. 

Rate,   necessity   of   maintaining, 

291. 
Reason,  education  of,  239. 
Recognition,  individual,  324. 
Records,  advantages  of,  39. 
definition  of,  183. 
educative  value  of,  190,  223. 
individual,  40. 
making    by    workers    of,    40, 

187 
necessity  for  detailed,  109. 
of  achievement,  187. 
of  good  behavior,  186. 
of  initiative,  185. 
posting  of,  188. 
relation  to  incentives,  41. 
relation  to  programmes,  196. 
result  to  work  of,  188. 
result  on  worker  of,  189. 
test  of  worth  of,  184. 
types  of,  185,  197. 
under    scientific    management, 

184. 
under  traditional  management, 

183. 
under  transitory  management, 
184. 
Records  and  programmes,  result 
on  work  of,  206. 


Records    and    programmes,    re- 
sult on  worker  of,  206. 
Repair  boss,  duties  of,  74. 
Responsibility,     under     scientific 

management,  325. 
Rest,  provision  for,  169. 
Reward,  assured,  282. 
attainability  of,  284. 
benefits  of  positive,  281. 
definition   of,  273. 
fixed,  282. 
nature  of,  274. 
personal,  282. 
predetermined,    28i2. 
results  of,  285. 
under    scientific    management, 

280. 
under  traditional  management, 

26,  275. 
under  transitory  management, 
279. 
Rhythm,  securing  of,  240. 
Route  chart,  description  of,  194. 
Route  clerk,  duties  of,  66. 

Schloss,  David  R— "Methods  of 
Industrial       Remuneration," 

.  75,  289. 
Scientific  management,  apprecia- 
tion    by     psychologists     of, 
93.  . 

athletic  contests  under,  34. 

brotherhood  under,  328. 

change  in  mental  attitude  un- 
der, 89. 

contentment  under,  327. 

definition  of,  6,  12. 

derivation  of,    17. 

development    of    men    under, 
87. 

disciplining  under,  70. 

divisions  of,  16. 

duties   of   foremen  under,  64. 

emulation  under,  258. 

final  results  of,  331. 

functionalization  under,  6,  81. 

importance  of  teaching  under, 
215., 

incentives  under,  279. 

individual  task  under,  43. 

measurement  under,  97. 


INDEX 


341 


methods  of  measurement  un- 
der, 105. 

opportunities  in,  4. 

place  of  workers  under,  62. 

provision  for  specialists  un- 
der, 86. 

provides  for  same  detailed 
planning  by  all,  80. 

place  of  analysis  and  synthesis 
in,  125. 

possibility  of  prophecy  under, 

195.  . 
promotion  of  men  under,  87. 
relation  of  all  parts  of,  242. 
relation  to  imagination,  248. 
relation  to  individuality,  27. 
relation  to  individual  records, 

42-. 
relation    to    industrial    peace, 

331- 

relation  to  invention,  136. 

relation  to  memory,  245. 

relation  to  profit  sharing,  297. 

relation  to  traditional  manage- 
ment, 218. 

relation  to  welfare,  320. 

rewards  under,  184,  280, 

results  in  loyalty,  253. 

selection  oi  workers  under, 
32. 

standardization  under,   147. 

stimulation  of  pride  by,  259. 

supplements  demanded  by,  29. 

teaching  of  apprentices  under, 
262. 

teaching  of  journeymen  under, 
262. 

training  of  will  under,  261. 

transference  of  knowledge  un- 
der, 117. 

underlying  ideas  of,  16. 

use  of  ambition  by,  258. 

use  of  curiosity,  255. 

use  of  imitation,  256. 

utilization  of  "all  round"  men 
under,  87. 

utilization  of  one-talent  men 
by,  86. 

vocabulary,  interest  of,  8. 

vocabulary,  poverty,  7. 

"will  to  do"  under,  328. 


Self  control,  development  of, 
326. 

Sense    training,    importance    of, 
228. 
methods  of,  230. 
scope  of,  231. 

Short  time  job,  provision  for, 
82. 

Smith,  Adam— "Wealth  of  Na- 
tions," 84,  179. 

Soldiering,  disadvantages  of,  274. 

Specialists,  provision  under 
scientific  management  for, 
86. 

Specializing,  encouraged  under 
scientific  management,  86. 

Speed  boss,  duties  of,  74. 

Square  deal,  need  for,  315. 

Squareness,  under  scientific  man- 
agement, 327. 

Standards,  derivation  of,  139. 
effect  of,  168. 
relation  to  automatic  response, 

239- 

relation  to  habit,  235. 

relation  to  incentive,  140,  257. 

relation  to  "judgment,"  141. 

relation  to  phrasing,  158. 

relation  to  psychology,  142. 

relations  to  systems,  145. 

relation  to  task,  140. 

result  of  measurement,  147. 
"Standard  amount,"  definition  of, 

98. 
Standard  clothing,  167. 
Standard  man,  definition  of,  152. 
Standardization,     definition     of, 
139. 

develops  individuality,  149. 

invention  under,  180. 

of  clothing,  166. 

of  devices,  164. 

of  equipment,  163. 

of  method  of  attack,  172. 

of   nomenclature,    151. 

of  quality,  171. 

of  tools,  164. 

prevention     of    accidents    by, 
180. 

progress  of,  181. 

purpose  of,  143. 


342 


INDEX 


Standardization,   relation   to   in- 
itiative,  148. 
result  to  work  of,  173. 
result  to  worker  of,  174. 
under    scientific    management, 

147. 
under  traditional  management, 

143- 
under  transitory  management, 

144. 
universality      of      application, 

149. 
waste  eliminated  by,  150. 
Stratton — "Experimental        Psy- 
chology   and    Culture,"    92, 
93,  113,  160,  169. 
Suggestion,  use  of,  252. 
Suggestion  card,  description  of, 

185. 
Sully,     James — "The     Teacher  s 
Handbook    of    Psychology," 
22,  23,  53,  141. 
Synthesis,   definition  of,   123. 
importance    of     selection     in, 

129. 
relation  to  task,  130. 
Synthesist,  duties  of,  129. 

qualifications  of,  135. 
Systems,  definition  of,  221. 
importance  of,  144. 
incentives  to  follow,  214. 
inelasticity  of,  214. 
relations  to  standards  of,  145. 
teaching  power  of,  213. 
value    in    transitory    manage- 
ment, 146. 

Task,    advantage   to    name    for, 

133- 

applied  to  work  of  all,  134. 

definition  under  scientific  man- 
agement, 133. 

individual  under  scientific 
management,  43. 

measured  by  motion  study  and 
time  study,   108. 

organization,  134. 

relation  to  measurement  of, 
98. 

relation  to  standard,  140. 

result  of  synthesis,  130. 


under  traditional  management, 

25- 

unfortunate  name  of,  131. 
Task  wage,  definition  of,  292. 
Task  work  with  a  bonus,  299. 
Taylor,    F.    W.— "A.    S.    M.    E. 
Transactions,  Vol.  28,"  108. 

"A.  S.  M.  E.  Paper  1119,"  112, 
180. 

"On     the     Art     of     Cutting 
Metals,"  78,  166. 

"Piece  Rate  System,  A,"  117. 

"Principles  of  Scientific  Man- 
agement," 4,  10,  IS,  18,  62. 

"Shop  Management,"  7,  9,  26, 
54.  55,  ^2,  94,  95,  108,  117, 
164,  165. 
Taylor  and  Thompson — "Con- 
crete Plain  and  Reinforced," 
123. 
Teaching,  availability  of,  227 

equipment  of,  225. 

functional   foreman  as,  224. 

training  of,  224. 
Teaching,  availability  of,  227. 

by  motion  cycles,  244. 

definition  of,  208. 

devices  of,  222. 

future  of,  268. 

involved    in    functional    fore- 
manship,  64. 

measurement  of,  263. 

methods  of,  220. 

need  of,  219. 

of  right  motions,  237. 

of  untrained  worked,  232. 

oral,  223,  241, 

psychological  basis  of,  228. 

relation  to  habit,  235. 

relation  to  individuality,  46. 

results  in  judgment,  251. 

results  to  work  of,  266, 

results  to  worker  of,  266. 

scope  of,  219. 

sources  of,  220. 

under    scientific    management, 
215. 

under  traditional  management, 
25,  208. 

under  transitory  management, 
213. 


INDEX 


343 


Three  Rate  with  Increased  Rate, 

description  of,  300. 
Time  and  Cost  clerk,  duties  of, 

68. 
Time  study,  aims  of,  no. 

definition  of,  106. 

importance  to  worker  of,  121. 

measurement  by,  105. 

scope  of,  108. 
"Tolerance,"  provision  for,  172. 
Tools,  standard,  need  for,  164. 
Towne,  H.  R. — "Introduction  to 
Scientific  Management,"  12. 
Traditional  management,  defini- 
tion of,  8,  II. 

disciplining  under,  69. 

functionalization  under,  54. 

handling  of  output  under,  25. 

measurement  under,  95. 

place  of  analysis  and  synthesis 
in,  124. 

position  of  workers  under,  60. 

preferable  name  for,  9. 

programme  under,  192. 

punishment  under,  277. 

records  under,  183. 

reward  under,  26,  275. 

selecting  workers  under,  24. 

standardization  under,  143. 

tasks  under,  25. 

teaching  under,  25,  208. 

treatment  of  individuality,  24. 

welfare  under,  311,  317. 
Transitory    management,     func- 
tionalization under,  61. 

measurement  under,  96. 

place  of  analysis  and  synthesis 
in,  125. 

programmes  under,  193. 

recognition     of     individuality, 
26. 

records  under,  184,  185. 

reward  under,  279. 

standardization  under,   144. 

teaching  under,  213. 

value  of  systems  in,  146. 

welfare  under,  318. 

Ultimate  management,  12. 
U.    S.    Bulletin   of    Agriculture, 
No.  208,  108. 


Units  of  measurement,  selection 

of,    III. 

Vocabulary,  importance  of  scien- 
tific management,  7, 

Vocational   guidance,    duties    of, 
265. 
relation  to  teaching,  264. 

Vocational      guidance      bureau, 
training    of    observers    by, 

lOI. 

work  of,  29. 

Wages,   definition    of,   288. 
Waste,    eliminated   by   measure- 
ment, 115. 
eliminated   by  standardization, 
150. 
Welfare,  definition  of,  311. 
individual,  46. 

relation  to  traditional  manage- 
ment, 311. 
relation  to  transitory  manage- 
ment,   318. 
result  to  work  of,  330. 
result  on  worker  of,  330. 
under    scientific    management, 
320. 
Welfare  work,  relation  to  scien- 
tific management,  329. 
under  traditional  management, 
317. 
White  List  File,  description  of, 

186. 
Will,  development  of,  316. 
education  of,  239. 
training  of,  261. 
Will  to  do,  under  scientific  man- 
agement, 328. 
Work,    effect    of    analysis    and 
synthesis  on,  138. 
effect  of  functionalization  up- 
on, 83. 
necessity  for  regularity  in,  321. 
result  of  incentives  to,  310. 
result    of    individuality   upon, 

46. 
results    of    measurement    on, 

113. 
result  of  programme  on,  195. 
result  of  records  on,  188,  206. 


344 


INDEX 


Work,  result  of  standardization 
on,  173. 

results  of  teaching  on,  266. 

result  of  welfare  on,  330. 
Worker,     advantages     of     func- 
tionalization  to,  76. 

appreciation  of  time  study  by, 
121. 

capacity  of,  94. 

change  in  mental  attitude  un- 
der scientific  management, 
89. 

cooperation  under  measure- 
ment of,  116. 

development  through   records, 

39. 

effect  of  analysis  and  synthesis 

on,  138. 
effect  of  functionalization  up- 
on, 8s. 
effect    of    measurement   upon, 

114. 
given  planning  if  he  likes  it, 

80. 
hardship  of  individual  planning 

to,  79. 
making  of  records  by,  40. 
observed,      qualifications      of, 

103. 
observed,  securing  cooperation 

of,  102. 


place  under  scientific  manage- 
ment, 62. 

position  under  traditional  man- 
agement, 60. 

records  made  by,  187. 

relation  to  process  of  analysis, 
129. 

relation      to      standardization, 
164. 

relieved  of  planning  if  he  dis- 
likes it,  80. 
rest  periods  for,  169, 

result  of  incentives  on,  310. 

result    of    individuality    upon, 

47. 

result  of  programme  on,   195, 
206. 

result  of  records  to,  189,  206. 

results   of   standardization   to, 
174. 

results  of  teaching  on,  266. 

result  of  welfare  on,  330, 

rewards  of,  285. 

selection  under  scientific  man- 
agement, 32. 

selection      under      traditional 
management,  24. 

untrained,  teaching  of,  232. 

variables  of,  28. 
Working  models,  value  of,  226. 


DATE  DUE 

APR  25 

APR  25  K 

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UNIVERSITY  PRODUCTS,  INC.   #859-5503 

BOSTON  COLLEGE 


3  9031  01492389  0 


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AUTHOR     G^^™ih^of 
TITLE      The  Psychology  of 

Ifenagement^  ^^\(r^^ 


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